Psych 261 Lecture 2 (Jan 8, 2025) PDF

The Heyday of Neurosurgery – First psychosurgery was performed by Swiss Dr. Gottlieb Burckhardt in 1891 – Portuguese neuroscientist Antonio Egas Moniz (& Almeida Lima) performed frontal leucotomies in 1930’s (Moniz received Nobel Prize) – Watts, Freeman, & Scoville ...

The Heyday of Neurosurgery – First psychosurgery was performed by Swiss Dr. Gottlieb Burckhardt in 1891 – Portuguese neuroscientist Antonio Egas Moniz (& Almeida Lima) performed frontal leucotomies in 1930’s (Moniz received Nobel Prize) – Watts, Freeman, & Scoville  The Split Brain – Commissurotomy: Pathways connecting the right and left cerebral hemispheres are cut (First human case in 1940, more in the 1960’s) – “... little disturbance in ordinary daily behaviour, temperament and intellect” (Gazzaniga & Sperry, 1967, p. 131). Corpus Callosum – Odd behaviors, including “alien hand”. (Interhemispheric transfer of information)  Left Visual Field Right Visual Field Spoon Gazzaniga, M. S. (1967). The split brain in man. Scientific American, 217(2), 24-29. Figure 1, p. 25  Lateralization of Function – Speech is often lateralized to the left hemisphere Hemispheric Asymmetry Hemispheric Specialization Gazzaniga, M. S. (1967). The split brain in man. Scientific ????? American, 217(2), 24-29. Figure 1, p. 25 Gazzaniga, M. S. (1967). The split brain in man. Scientific American, 217(2), 24-29. Figure 4, p. 28 Gazzaniga, M. S. (1967). The split brain in man. Scientific American, 217(2), 24-29.  Materialism Identity Position Reductionism Currently Popular Monistic View  Consciousness and the Brain David Chalmers – The Easy Problem: What conscious states relate to what sorts of brain activity? – The Hard Problem: Why is there consciousness and how does brain activity become conscious? – Panpsychism  That’s my-elin Cells of the Nervous System  Reticular Theory Neuron Theory (Doctrine) Josef von Gerlach (1820-1896 CE) Ramon y Cajal (1852-1934 CE) Camillo Golgi (1843-1926 CE) The nervous system is a continuous “the relationship between nerve cells network was not one of continuity, but rather of contiguity.” (Lopez-Munoz & Alamo, 2006, p. 393) “a diffuse protoplasmic network of the grey matter of the nerve centres. “Each nerve cell is a totally ” (Lopez-Munoz & Alamo, 2006, p. 393) autonomous physiological canton.” (Cajal, quoted by Lopez-Munoz & Alamo, 2006, p. 396) López-Muñoz, F., Boya, J., & Alamo, C. (2006). Neuron theory, the cornerstone of neuroscience, on the centenary of the Nobel Prize award to Santiago Ramón y Cajal. Brain Research Bulletin, 70(4–6), 391–405.  Cajal sitting in his laboratory Cajal’s drawing of neurons López-Muñoz, F., Boya, J., & Alamo, C. (2006). Neuron theory, the cornerstone of neuroscience, on the centenary of the Nobel Prize award to Santiago Ramón y Cajal. Brain Research Bulletin, 70(4–6), 391–405. Fig. 9, p. 402.  Types of Cells Grey Matter contains many White Matter contains many cell bodies of neurons. glia. Brain image from Dr. Brandon Ralph  Cerebral Cortex = ~77 billion cells Whole Brain = ~170 billion cells Neurons = ~16 billion Neurons = ~86 billion Glia = ~61 billion Glia = ~84 billion Neuron : Glia ratio = 1 : 3.75 Neuron : Glia ratio = 1 : 1 Rest of Brain = ~ 8.4 billion cells Neurons = ~0.7 billion Cerebellum = ~ 85 billion cells Glia = ~7.7 billion Neurons = ~69 billion Neuron : Glia ratio = 1 : 11 Glia = ~16 billion Neuron : Glia ratio = 4.3 : 1 Azevedo, F. A. C., Carvalho, L. R. B., Grinberg, L. T., Farfel, J. M., Ferretti, R. E. L., Leite, R. E. P., Filho, W. J., Lent, R., & Herculano‐Houzel, S. (2009). Equal numbers of neuronal and nonneuronal cells make the human brain an isometrically scaled‐up primate brain. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 513(5), 532–541. Figure 2, p. 536.  The Neuron Dendrite s Axon Soma Axon Terminal (Terminal Button)  Types of Neurons Multipolar Neuron Bipolar Neuron Unipolar Neuron Dendritic Branches Dendritic Axon Stalk Pyramidal Neuron Ghosh, K. K., Bujan, S., Haverkamp, S., Feigenspan, A., & Wässle, H. (2004). Types of bipolar cells in the Matsuda, S., Kobayashi, N., Wakisaka, H., Saito, S., Saito, K., http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ Miyawaki, K.,... & Fujiwara, T. (2000). Morphological transformation mouse retina. Journal of Comparative Neurology, File:GolgiStainedPyramidalCell.jpg of sensory ganglion neurons and satellite cells. Biomedical Reviews, 469(1), 70-82. Figure 2B and Figure 3. 11, 39-52. Figure 1h, p. 41.  Types of Neurons A neuron’s function is related to its shape. Semipermeable Membrane Extracellular Fluid Phospholipid Bilayer Proteins Intracellular Fluid The Soma Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum Ribosome Lysosome Golgi Vesicle Apparatus Mitochondrion Nucleolus Chromatin Nucleus Nuclear (DNA) Membrane Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum Dendrites Dendritic Spine Dendritic Shaft Nimchinsky, E.A., Sabatini, B.L, & Svoboda, K. (2002). Structure and function of dendritic spines. Annual Review of Physiology, 64, 313-353, Figure1, p. 314. Hippocampal Neuron  Dendritic Spines Spine Head Spine Neck Postsynaptic Actin Dendritic Shaft Density Filaments Bosch, M., & Hayashi, Y. (2012). Structural plasticity of dendritic spines. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 22, 383-388, Figure 1, p. 385.  Mitochondrion Actin Cytoskeleton Neurotransmitter Receptors and Ion Channels Adhesion Molecules Postsynaptic Density Base on Figure 1 from Fortin, D.A., Srivastava, T., & Soderling, T.R. (2012). Structural modulation of dendritic spines during synaptic plasticity. The Neuroscientist, 18, 326-341. See also Figure 1 from Brigidi, S.G., & Bamji, S.X. (2011). Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 21, 208-214.  Dendritic Spine Motility Time (Images taken 2.5-min apart) “…spines are constantly experiencing morphological plasticity in vitro and in vivo…This “motility” is actin based… and can lead to major changes in spine shapes, with elongation, shortening, or even complete disappearance of the spine neck in a matter of seconds” Yuste, R. (2013). Electrical compartmentalization in dendritic spines. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 36, 429-449, Figure 10, p. 441. quote p. 440.  Axon Axon Axon Hillock Node of Ranvier Myelin Sheath  Node of Ranvier Myeli n Phospholipid Protein Complexes Bilayer (Ion Channels) Ion channels allow charged particles (ions) to pass through. They are involved in electrical signaling.  Node of Ranvier Extracellular Space Myelin Myelin Axon Myelin Myelin Extracellular Space Jessen, K. R., & Mirsky, R. (1999). Schwann cells and their precursors emerge as major regulators of nerve development. Trends in neurosciences, 22(9), 402-410. Figure 5.  Actin Filament (~6 nm) Neurofilament (~10 nm) Microtubule (~24 nm)  Fast Axonal Transport Anterograde Movement: Kinesin Retrograde Movement: Dynein moves cargo from the soma to moves cargo from the axon the axon terminal. terminal to the soma. Cargo Cargo (e.g., Vesicle) (e.g., Vesicle) Kinesin Dynein (Motor Protein) (Motor Protein) Microtubule Soma Axon Terminal  Fast Axonal Transport Vesicle Kinesin Vesicle Microtubule Hirokawa, N. (1998). Kinesin and dynein superfamily proteins and the Setou, M., Nakagawa, T., Seog, D., & Hirokawa, N. (2000). Kinesin mechanism of organelle transport, Science, 279, 519-526, Figure 1, p. superfamily motors protein KIF17 and mLin-10 in NMDA receptor- 519. containing vesicle transport. Science, 288, 1796-1800, Figure 7, p. 1800.  Axon Terminal Transporter Proteins Mitochondrion Actin Filament Ion Channels Vesicle Neurotransmitter Microtubule Adhesion Molecules Receptor Ion Channels  The Synapse Synaptic Cleft Presynaptic Postsynaptic Terminal Dendrite Adhesion Molecules  Sir Charles Scott Sherrington Introduced the concept (1857-1952 CE): of the “synapse”. “So far as our present knowledge goes, we are led to think that the tip of a twig of the arborescence is not continuous with but merely in contact with the substance of the dendrite or cell-body on which it impinges. Such a special connection of one nerve cell with another might be called a ‘synapse’ [means ”joining together”]. The lack of continuity between the material of the arborization of one cell and that of the dendrite (or body) of the other offers the opportunity for some change in the nature of the nervous impulse as it passes from one cell to the other.” Original Publication: 1906 López-Muñoz, F., Boya, J., & Alamo, C. (2006). Neuron theory, the cornerstone of neuroscience, on the centenary of the Nobel Prize award to Santiago Ramón y Cajal. Brain Research Bulletin, 70(4–6), 391–405. Fig. 10, p. 403, quote from p.402.  The Synapse a: Presynaptic Terminal Presynaptic Terminal Postsynaptic Cell b: Postsynaptic cell Electron micrography of an axo-somatic synapse: Rizzoli, S.O., & Betz, W. (2005). Synaptic vesicle pools. Nature Reviews López-Muñoz, F., Boya, J., & Alamo, C. (2006). Neuron Neuroscience, 6, 57-69. Figure 5. theory, the cornerstone of neuroscience, on the centenary of the Nobel Prize award to Santiago Ramón y Cajal. Brain Research Bulletin, 70(4–6), 391–405. Fig. 12, p. 404. A Common Scenario Communication occurs by chemicals called neurotransmitters. Axons conduct an electrical signal.  Sir Charles Scott Sherrington Introduced the concept (1857-1952 CE): of the “synapse”. “So far as our present knowledge goes, we are led to think that the tip of a twig of the arborescence is not continuous with but merely in contact with the substance of the dendrite or cell-body on which it impinges. Such a special connection of one nerve cell with another might be called a ‘synapse’ [means ”joining together”]. The lack of continuity between the material of the arborization of one cell and that of the dendrite (or body) of the other offers the opportunity for some change in the nature of the nervous impulse as it passes from one cell to the other.” López-Muñoz, F., Boya, J., & Alamo, C. (2006). Neuron theory, the cornerstone of neuroscience, on the centenary of the Nobel Prize award to Santiago Ramón y Cajal. Brain Research Bulletin, 70(4–6), 391–405. Fig. 10, p. 403, quote from p.402.  Efferent Axon: Carries a signal away from an area. Reference Area Afferent Axon: Carries a signal to an area.  That’s my-elin Glia  Astrocytes 30μ m Sloan, S. A., Darmanis, S., Huber, N., Khan, T. A., Birey, F., Caneda, C., Reimer, R., Quake, S. R., Barres, B. A., & Paşca, S. P. (2017). Human Astrocyte Maturation Captured in 3D Cerebral Cortical Spheroids Derived from Pluripotent Stem Cells. Neuron, 95(4), 779-790.e6. Fig 1C, p. 780.  The Blood-Brain Barrier Tight junction restricts passage of water-soluble molecules. Lipid-soluble agents (e.g., fats) and some gasses (CO 2) can passively move through membrane. Basal Lamina Pericyte Blood in Capillary Glucose Astrocyte Active transport of larger molecules (e.g., glucose, amino acids, insulin). Neuron Endothelial Cell Based on: Abbott, N. J., Rönnbäck, L., & Hansson, E. (2006). Astrocyte–endothelial interactions at the blood–brain barrier. Nature reviews neuroscience, 7(1), 41. Fig 2 & 3, p. 43 & 44. Astrocytes Forming a Blood-Brain Barrier BVL = Blood Vessel Heneka, M. T., Rodríguez, J. J., & Verkhratsky, A. (2010). Neuroglia in neurodegeneration. Brain research reviews, 63(1), 189-211. Figure 3.  Astrocytes help form the blood-brain barrier. Astrocytes connect to other astrocytes for long-distance molecule transfer. Astrocytes serve as conduits for nutrients between the blood and neurons. Astrocytes create scaffolding that holds neurons in place. Blood in Capillary Astrocyte Neuron Astrocytes play a role in dilating and constricting blood vessels.  The Tripartite Synapse Astrocyte Presynaptic Postsynaptic Axon Terminal Dendritic Spine Halassa, M. M., Fellin, T., & Haydon, P. G. (2007). The tripartite synapse: roles for gliotransmission in health and disease. Trends in molecular medicine, 13(2), 54-63. Figure 1, p. 55. Synchronization of Multiple Synapses Astrocyte Neuron Astrocyte envelopes multiple synapses (i.e., forming multiple tripartite synapses) and synchronizes activity at the synapses. Synchronization of Multiple Synapses Astrocyte Neuron Astrocyte envelopes multiple synapses (i.e., forming multiple tripartite synapses) and synchronizes activity at the synapses.