Psych 2 Midterm Notes PDF

Lecture 1 - Theories of Intelligence (Chapter 9) What is Intelligence? No consensus on a clear definition. Boring definition: "Intelligence is whatever intelligence tests measure." Key questions: ○ Is intelligence a single ability or multiple abilities? ○ Is i...

Lecture 1 - Theories of Intelligence (Chapter 9) What is Intelligence? No consensus on a clear definition. Boring definition: "Intelligence is whatever intelligence tests measure." Key questions: ○ Is intelligence a single ability or multiple abilities? ○ Is intelligence unique to humans? Sensory Abilities & Early Theories Francis Galton (1890s): Intelligence as a byproduct of sensory abilities (e.g., better sensory abilities = more intelligence). ○ Tested 9,000 individuals and found no evidence of a strong connection between sensory abilities and intelligence. ○ Counterexample: Helen Keller – blind and deaf, but highly accomplished. Binet & Simon (1905) – Early IQ Testing Developed the first intelligence test. - The start of IQ testing Intelligence = higher mental processes, abstract thinking. By 1921, experts identified core intelligence abilities: ○ Abstract reasoning ○ Adapting to novel environments ○ Acquiring knowledge ○ Benefiting from experience General vs Specific Abilities Charles Spearman (1927): ○ General intelligence (g): overall cognitive ability. ○ Specific intelligence (s): intelligence specific to certain tasks. Thurstone (1938): ○ Argued against Spearman's 'g'. ○ Suggested primary mental abilities like: Verbal comprehension Word fluency Numeric ability Spatial visualisation Associative memory Perceptual speed Inductive reasoning Fluid vs Crystallized Intelligence Cattell & Horn (1940s/1960s):  ○ Fluid intelligence: ability to solve new problems, think abstractly. ○ Crystallised intelligence: accumulated knowledge, facts, and experiences. ○ Fluid intelligence transforms into crystallised intelligence over time. Multiple Intelligences Gardner (1983, 1999): ○ There are many ways of being intelligent, and different intelligences are distinct and independent from one another. ○ Examples: linguistic, spatial, musical, kinesthetic, etc. ○ “An intelligence” is - distinct and independent of other abilities, likely an evolutionary advantage, and some people can be exceptional in only this area ○ Critiques: Concerns over whether these are truly "intelligences" or just talents. The independence of abilities is questioned. Some categories lack clear falsifiability (ability to be tested or proven false). ○ Unclear why some things are classified as an “intelligence” and other things are not Triarchic Model (Sternberg 1983, 1988) Three types of intelligence: 1. Analytical intelligence ("book smarts"): Logical reasoning, problem-solving. 2. Practical intelligence ("street smarts"): Ability to handle everyday tasks. 3. Creative intelligence: Ability to think of novel solutions. Critique: These components may not be as independent as claimed and are likely related to 'g.' Neurological Bases of Intelligence Intelligence is linked to various brain regions: ○ Frontal lobe: Executive function, planning, impulse control. ○ Prefrontal cortex: Thinking, planning, and language; active during tasks related to 'g.' ○ Temporal lobe: Auditory processing, memory. ○ Parietal lobe: Spatial abilities. ○ Occipital lobe: Visual-spatial processing. Processing speed: ○ Reaction time: Faster reaction time often correlates with intelligence. ○ Working memory: Linked to many intelligence measures. Summary of Intelligence Theories Intelligence likely involves a general factor (g), with subtypes that cluster together. Definitions of intelligence vary across cultures and are influenced by education. Lecture 2 - Intelligence Testing Theories of Intelligence Historically, theories were proposed mostly by white, European/American men from prestigious institutions. Their definitions often reflect the ability to do well in a Western academic context. How Can We Measure Intelligence? Self-reported intelligence correlates weakly with objective measures. ○ 93% of people think they are better drivers than average. ○ 65% believe they are above average intelligence. Dunning-Kruger Effect: Cognitive bias where those with lower abilities overestimate their competence, while highly skilled individuals may underestimate theirs. - “the double curse of incompetence” Intelligence Testing Stanford-Binet Test (1916): Still in use today (5th edition), measures cognitive abilities across a wide range of ages through: 1. Fluid reasoning - problem-solving and adaptability to new situations. 2. Knowledge - general information and acquired knowledge. 3. Quantitative reasoning - numerical problem-solving and understanding. 4. Visual-spatial processing - ability to visualise and manipulate objects mentally. 5. Working memory - ability to hold and manipulate information over short periods. Compares intelligence to population norms and adapts for developmental level. IQ (Intelligence Quotient) IQ formula: (Mental age/Chronological age) x 100, works for children up to ~16 years. For adults, use deviation IQ: Compares raw scores to the population. ○ Average IQ = 100, with 68% falling between 85-115 and 95% between 70-130. WAIS-IV (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale) Measures five key areas: 1. Overall IQ 2. Verbal comprehension 3. Perceptual reasoning 4. Working memory 5. Processing speed WAIS-IV Subtests Vocabulary: Tests language development. - Eg. Word comprehension - Disadvantage: lack of exposure, ESL. Similarities: Measures abstract thinking and concept formation.  - Eg. How are two things related - Disadvantage: lack of access, Different articulation skills (on the spectrum), Tset can be basic and arbitrary. Information: Tests general knowledge. - Eg. What is the circumference of the earth - Disadvantage: from different cultures, Tests are North American based, Lack of information access. Comprehension: Evaluates understanding of social conventions. - Eg. Why do people need a birth certificate - Disadvantage: cultural differences/different laws, Tests are often North American based. Arithmetic: Measures problem-solving and mental manipulation of numbers. - Eg. How long will it take to drive 150 miles at 50 miles per hour? - Disadvantage: Questions can oftentimes be ambiguous. Digit Span: Tests short-term memory and attention. - Eg. Repeat these numbers in ascending order: 12 6 22 4 8 1 - Disadvantage: hard for people with attention deficits. Timer puts pressure on those with mental illnesses. Subscales Picture completion: Tests visual alertness and memory. - Eg. What is missing on this picture of a house - Disadvantage: a lot of assumptions and cultural patterns. Lack of experience with specific things. Block design: Assesses the ability to analyse patterns. - Eg. Copy a design using blocks, matching a pattern - Disadvantage: colour blindness, delay in your fine motor skills makes it difficult if there is a timer. Figure weights: Logical reasoning with numbers. - Eg. How to do you balance this scale - Disadvantage: lack of experience with tech/scales. Visual puzzle: Organising parts of a figure into a whole. - Eg. Which three of these puzzle pieces go together to make this puzzle - Disadvantage: unclear, can you overlap. Digit symbol: Tests coding and memory. - Eg. Matching numbers with symbols - Disadvantage: slight cultural and educational advantage, Disability in motor skill, Dyslexia. Culturally Fair IQ Tests Raven’s Progressive Matrices: Nonverbal test measuring abstract reasoning, used to minimise cultural bias. Eugenics and IQ Testing Eugenics Movement: Based on the idea of “good genes” and selective reproduction. ○ Positive eugenics: Encouraging reproduction among those with desirable traits.  ○ Negative eugenics: Preventing reproduction of those deemed undesirable (e.g., sterilisation). ○ Influenced Nazi ideology and policies leading to human rights violations. Standardised Testing and University Admissions Standardised tests like the SAT correlate with IQ (r = 0.7-0.8) but often reflect privilege more than pure intelligence, reinforcing inequality. Reliability and Validity of IQ Tests Reliability: IQ scores are consistent over time (r = 0.9 week to week, r = 0.7 from childhood to adulthood). Validity: IQ tests are moderately valid, predicting academic and work success. Giftedness Refers to individuals in the top 2% of IQ scores. Terman’s study of “Termites” found that common myths about gifted individuals (burnout, mental illness) were mostly false. Genes and Intelligence Family and twin studies confirm a genetic basis for IQ, but environmental factors (education, trauma, toxins) play a significant role. - Twin studies show identical twin correlations of 0.7 to 0.8, fraternal of 0.3 to 0.4. Emotional Intelligence Involves understanding and managing one's own emotions and others' emotions. It overlaps with empathy and personality traits, and may predict success differently than IQ. Future Directions Other important predictors of success include: ○ Grit/Resilience: May be more important than IQ in achieving long-term success. ○ Wisdom: The application of intelligence toward achieving the common good. Lecture 3: Developmental Psychology & Aging Research in Developmental Psychology Cross-sectional design: Studies people of various ages at the same time. ○ Limitation: Cannot conclude age-related changes. Longitudinal design: Follows the same group of people over a long period. ○ Caution: Post-hoc fallacy – assuming causation because one thing happens after another. ○ Bidirectional influences: Individuals and their environments influence each other. Importance of Early Experiences Infant determinism: Early experiences are influential, but not the only determining factor. Childhood fragility: The idea that children are more vulnerable to stress - Children are not as vulnerable to stress as once thought; they are resilient. Nature vs. Nurture Debate Gene-environment interaction: Genes express differently based on environmental factors. Nature via Nurture: Genetic predispositions drive us to create certain environments. Gene expression: Genes activate in response to specific environmental events. Physical Development Prenatal Development: ○ Gametes: Reproductive cells (egg, sperm) ○ Zygote: Sperm fertilises an egg. ○ Blastocyst: Identical cells, no specific functions yet. ○ Embryo: Major organs, limbs, facial features form (weeks 2-8). ○ Foetus: (9th week onward) Organs continue developing. Brain development: ○ Proliferation: Neural stem cells multiply. ○ Organisation: Neurons form synaptic connections to create functional networks. ○ Migration: Neurons move to their final positions. Developmental Obstacles Teratogens: Toxins (e.g., alcohol, drugs) that disrupt development. Foetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD): Caused by maternal alcohol use; varying severity. Can cause spectrum disorders at different levels and deficits in many aspects of being Genetic disorders: Errors in chromosomes or cell division. Premature birth: Born before 36 weeks, can lead to developmental issues. Motor Development Infant reflexes: Innate motor behaviours like sucking and rooting. Motor behaviours: Self-initiated movements develop on a predictable schedule. Theories of Cognitive Development Jean Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development: ○ Assimilation: used to acquire new knowledge within a stage - Ex, all animals are dogs ○ Accommodation: process of altering a belief to make it more compatible with experience - Ex, not everything is dog, there are different animals ○ Equilibration – balances these processes - Forming categories through new and existing information  ○ Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years): Immediate sensory experiences. Lack of object permanence. Major milestone: mental representation. ○ Preoperational Stage (2-7 years): Mental representation begins. Egocentrism: Unable to see others’ perspectives. Unable to perform mental operations Lack of conservation understanding. ○ Concrete Operations Stage (7-11 years): Can perform logical mental operations for observed objects. ○ Formal Operations Stage (11+ years): Hypothetical and abstract reasoning develops. Self and identity form, morality, philosophy Lev Vygotsky’s Theory: ○ Emphasises social and cultural influences. ○ Scaffolding: Structured environments for learning, gradually removed as the child improves. ○ Zone of proximal development: Phase where children benefit most from guidance. Social Development and Attachment Temperament: Differences in children’s social and emotional styles 1. Easy (40%), Difficult (10%), Slow to warm up (15%), No category (35%). Harlow’s Contact Comfort Study (1958): - Series of surrogate studies with rhesus monkeys - Rhesus monkeys raised in isolation were given either a wire mother with food or a soft, cloth mother without - Physical contact is critical for attachment, not just food. Attachment styles: 1. Secure attachment (60%): Confident in caregiver's return, upset when they leave. 2. Insecure-avoidant (15-20%): Indifferent when separated from caregiver. 3. Insecure-anxious (15-20%): Panic when caregiver leaves. 4. Disorganised (5-10%): Inconsistent reactions to separation. Parenting Styles 1. Permissive: Lenient, low discipline, high affection (20%). 2. Authoritarian: Strict, low affection (20%). 3. Uninvolved: Neglectful (10%). 4. Authoritative: Supportive with firm boundaries (50-70%). Moral and Identity Development Kohlberg’s Moral Development Stages: 1. Preconventional (0-9): - Stage 1: Obedience and punishment - Stage 2: Individualism and exchange 2. Conventional (adolescence to adulthood):  - Stage 3: Developing social relationships - Stage 4: Maintaining social order 3. Postconventional (some adults): - Stage 5: Social contracts and individual rights - Stage 6: Universal principles. Erikson’s Stages of Identity Development: 1. Infancy: Trust vs mistrust. 2. Toddlerhood: Autonomy vs shame. 3. Early Childhood: Initiative vs guilt. 4. Middle Childhood: Industry vs inferiority. 5. Adolescence: Identity vs role confusion. 6. Young Adulthood: Intimacy vs isolation. 7. Adulthood: Generativity vs stagnation. 8. Ageing: Ego integrity vs despair. Lecture 4: Emotion and Motivation Emotions Discrete Emotions Theory: Small set of distinct, universal emotions with biological roots and evolutionary purposes. ○ Emotions help with survival and adaptation. ○ Primary emotions: Happiness, Anger, Sadness, Fear, Disgust, Surprise, Contempt. ○ Display rules: Cultural guidelines for expressing emotions. Real vs Fake Emotions: ○ Duchenne smile (real) vs Pan Am smile (fake). ○ Emotional leakage: Unintentional expression of emotions through body language, tone, etc. When your true emotions "leak" through despite efforts to mask them. Cognitive Theories of Emotion James-Lange Theory: Stimulus → body reacts → emotion is experienced (body before mind). Cannon-Bard Theory: Emotion-provoking events cause simultaneous emotional and physical reactions. (Body and mind react simultaneously) Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory: - Two psychological events are required for emotion 1. Undifferentiated arousal 2. Attribution (interpretation based on context) Unconscious Influences on Emotion Automatic emotions: Unconscious reactions to stimuli. Facial feedback hypothesis: Facial movements can influence emotional experience. Nonverbal Displays of Emotion Most emotional communication is nonverbal (gestures, posture). ○ Nonverbal leakage: Unconscious expression of emotions in body language.  Body Language & Gestures: ○ Posture can communicate emotions, largely in unconscious ways ○ Gestures can also convey emotion (illustrators or manipulators) ○ Emblems: Culture-specific gestures (e.g., thumbs up). Personal Space (Proxemics): ○ Public: 12+ feet ○ Social: 4-12 feet ○ Personal: 1.5-4 feet ○ Intimate: 0-1.5 feet - Influenced by culture, gender, age, and personality Lie Detection Most people are bad at detecting lies. Polygraph: Measures arousal during questioning but has high rates of false positives/negatives. ○ Guilty Knowledge Test: Polygraph-based test using multiple-choice relevant questions. ○ Brain fingerprinting using fMRI imaging, EEG ○ Integrity tests: Questionnaire that assesses workers’ tendency to steal or cheat Positive Psychology Focus: Human strengths and positive emotions. ○ Defensive pessimism: Expecting failure to prepare for the worst. Happiness: Subjective sense of life satisfaction. ○ Broaden and build theory: Happiness broadens thinking and problem-solving. Forecasting Happiness Affective forecasting: Predicting future emotions. ○ Durability bias: Overestimating how long emotions will last. ○ Hedonic treadmill: People return to a stable level of happiness despite positive or negative events. Misconceptions about Happiness Life events: good/bad unrelated to our happiness Money: Only affects happiness up to a certain threshold. Happiness & ageing: Happiness doesn't decline with age; older adults may experience more positivity. What does make us happy?: Social connections, purpose, mental state. Drive and Arousal Drive Reduction Theory: Drives (e.g., hunger) create discomfort, and satisfying them reduces this discomfort. Yerkes-Dodson Law: Optimal performance occurs at moderate arousal; too little or too much arousal worsens performance. Incentive Theories of Motivation Proposes that we are often motivated by positive goals beyond drive states Intrinsic motivation: Driven by internal goals. Extrinsic motivation: Driven by external rewards. 1. Overjustification effect: External rewards can reduce intrinsic motivation. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: 1. Physiological needs 2. Safety needs 3. Belonging needs 4. Esteem needs 5. Self-actualization Weight Gain and Obesity Leptin: Hormone that reduces appetite. Genes: play a strong role in obesity Internal-external theory: Obese individuals are more influenced by external food cues than internal hunger cues. - Portion distortion & unit bias Eating Disorders Bulimia nervosa (1-3% of population): Binge eating followed by purging. Anorexia nervosa (0.5 - 1%): Extreme weight loss and distorted body image. Compulsive overeating: Consuming excessive food, leading to discomfort and guilt. Sexual Desire and Orientation Sexual desire (libido): Influenced by biological and cultural factors. Human sexual response: ○ Excitement phase - sexual pleasure, physiological changes ○ Plateau phase - response in which sexual tension builds ○ Orgasm phase - Sexual pleasure peaks, involuntary physical response ○ Resolution phase - relaxation and a sense of well-being Sexual orientation: Influenced by genetic, biological, and cultural factors. ○ APA: Same-sex attraction is normal; conversion therapy is not supported. Interpersonal Attraction Factors influencing attraction: ○ Proximity: Close physical distance. ○ Similarity: Shared traits. ○ Reciprocity: Mutual exchange. ○ Appearance: Physical attractiveness (e.g., symmetry, waist-to-hip ratio). What is attractive? This changes over time and across cultures. Some common themes: hip to waist ratio, symmetry, averaging Love Passionate love: Intense longing for one’s partner. Companionate love: Deep friendship and affection. Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love: 1. Passion 2. Commitment 3. Intimacy - Relationships can change over time between different love types Lecture 5 - Stress and Coping What is Stress? Stress: A response to a stressor that strains our ability to cope. Trauma: A severe stressor causing long-term psychological and physical health issues. ○ Not everyone exposed to large negative events experiences trauma. Ways to Think About Stressors 1. Stressors as stimuli: External events that provoke stress. 2. Stress as a response: Emotional and physiological reactions to stress. 3. Stress as a transaction: The process of appraising and coping with stressors. ○ Stressor: External event or situation that poses a challenge or threat to an individual ○ Primary Appraisal: Initial assessment of the situation (threat, harm, or challenge). ○ Secondary Appraisal: Evaluation of coping resources. ○ Problem-focused coping: Taking direct actions to solve the issue. ○ Emotion-focused coping: Managing emotional responses. Measuring Stress Social Readjustment Rating Scale: Assesses life stressors to predict illness. ○ Limitations: Subjectivity in stress experience, ignores personal support and mental health. Daily Hassles Scale: Measures frequency and severity of minor daily stressors (work, finances, health). General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) (Selye, 1956) 1. Alarm: CNS and limbic system, Initial fight-or-flight reaction, releasing adrenaline and cortisol. 2. Resistance: cerebral cortex (thinking brain) takes over, Body adapts, but stress hormone levels remain high. 3. Exhaustion: Prolonged stress depletes resources, leading to burnout or illness. Stress/Threat Responses  Fight-or-flight: Stand to face the threat or flee. Other responses: ○ Fawn: Try to appease. ○ Freeze: Unable to move or react. ○ Tend and befriend: Tendency to protect loved ones; seek social support. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Not all trauma leads to PTSD. Symptoms: High arousal, intrusive thoughts, hypervigilance, avoidance. Single episodes vs. chronic/complex trauma. Coping with Stress Behavioural control: Problem-focused coping (action to change the stressor). Cognitive control: Changing thoughts and perceptions of the stressor. Decisional control: Making choices to influence the outcome. Emotional control: Expressing or suppressing emotions (catharsis). Informational control: Gathering information to reduce uncertainty (proactive coping). Social Support and Coping Social support: Family, friends, community provide emotional and practical help. Hardiness: Viewing stressors as challenges rather than threats. Optimism: Positive outlook leads to better stress handling and less illness. Spirituality: Religious belief can improve coping, though effects may be due to social confounds. Maladaptive Coping Strategies Self-destructive behaviours: Substance abuse, self-harm, self-pity. Suppressing emotions: Avoiding emotions leads to more stress. Ruminating: Focusing on negative thoughts can worsen stress. Stress and the Immune System Psychoneuroimmunology: Studies how stress affects the immune system. Psychophysiological disorders: Stress-related conditions (e.g., ulcers, heart disease). Biopsychosocial model: Health is influenced by biological, psychological, and social factors. Coronary Heart Disease and Stress Influenced by behaviour (diet, exercise), personality (e.g., Type A), and social stressors (Daily hassles). Biological: cholesterol accumulates, atherosclerosis, medications Psychological: personality, anger, diet, exercise choices - Type A Personality: Competitive, high-strung, more prone to stress-related illnesses. - Type B Personality: Relaxed, less stressed, lower risk of heart disease. Benefits of Stress  Motivation to complete tasks. Signals problems that need attention. Helps prepare for emergencies and builds community resilience. Healthy lifestyle Health psychology – combines behavioural sciences with medicine to develop educational interventions Four key behaviours for optimal health and coping: a) don’t smoke/vape b) don’t drink c) healthy body weight d) exercise Barriers to a Healthy Lifestyle Personal inertia: Difficulty in initiating changes. Misunderstood risk: Poor understanding of the consequences of unhealthy behaviours. Powerlessness: Feeling unable to make changes due to lack of resources or knowledge. Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM) Alternative medicine: Practices used instead of conventional medicine (e.g., homoeopathy). Complementary medicine: Practices used alongside conventional treatments (e.g., acupuncture, supplements). Types of CAM Approaches Mind-body medicine: Yoga, meditation. Body manipulation: Chiropractics, reflexology. Energy therapy: Acupuncture, tai chi. Biological approaches: Vitamins, supplements (caution: not regulated, can be harmful). Why CAM is Popular Placebo effects. Lack of awareness of risks. Symptoms naturally fluctuate (leading to false attribution of healing).