Psychological Science - Introduction to Research Methods PDF

psychological science P R E PA R E D A N D P R E S E N T E D BY: M S. C I N DY R H O S E T I N G A L , R P M , C H RA  introduction Psychologists study the behavior of both humans and animals. The main purpose of this research is to help us understand people and to improv...

psychological science P R E PA R E D A N D P R E S E N T E D BY: M S. C I N DY R H O S E T I N G A L , R P M , C H RA  introduction Psychologists study the behavior of both humans and animals. The main purpose of this research is to help us understand people and to improve the quality of human lives. The results of psychological research are relevant to problems such as learning and memory, homelessness, psychological disorders, family instability, and aggressive behavior and violence. 01BASIC VS. APPLIED RESEARCH  DEFINITIONS Some psychological research is basic research. Basic research is research that answers fundamental questions about behavior. Applied research is research that investigates issues that have implications for everyday life and provides solutions to everyday problems. Basic research and applied research  The results of psychological research are reported primarily in research articles published in scientific journals. The research reported in scientific journals has been evaluated, critiqued, and improved by scientists in the field through the process of peer review.  PSYCHOLOGISTS USE THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD TO GUIDE THEIR RESEARCH Psychologists are not the only people who seek to understand human behavior and solve social problems. Philosophers, religious leaders, politicians and others also strive to provide explanations for human behavior. But psychologists believe that research is the best tool for understanding human beings and their relationships with others. The statements made by psychologists are empirical, which means they are based on systematic collection and analysis of data.  THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD The scientific method is the set of assumptions, rules, and procedures scientists use to conduct research. In addition to requiring that science be empirical, the scientific method demands that the procedures used are objective, or free from the personal bias or emotions of the scientist.  LAWS AND THEORIES AS ORGANIZING PRINCIPLES One goal of research is to organize information into meaningful statements that can be applied in many situations. Principles that are so general as to apply to all situations in a given domain of inquiry are known as laws. The next step down from laws in the hierarchy of organizing principles is theory. A theory is an integrated set of principles that explains and predicts many, but not all, observed relationships within a given domain of inquiry.  GOOD THEORIES HAVE FOUR IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS: good theories are general, meaning they summarize many different outcomes. they are parsimonious, meaning they provide the simplest possible account of those outcomes. good theories are generative, that is they provide ideas for future research. good theories are falsifiable, which means the variables of interest can be adequately measured and  THE RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS Research hypothesis is a specific and falsifiable prediction about the relationship between or among two or more variables. A variable is any attribute that can assume different values among different people or across different times or places. EXAMPLE: “Using marijuana will reduce learning” The term operational definition refers to a precise  CONDUCTING ETHICAL RESEARCH One of the issues that all scientists must address concerns the ethics of their research. Research in psychology may cause some stress, harm, or inconvenience for the people who participate in that research. Psychologists may induce stress, anxiety, or negative moods in their participants, expose them to weak electrical shocks, or convince them to behave in ways that violate their moral standards. Decisions about whether research is ethical are made using established ethical codes developed by scientific organizations,  CHARACTERISTICS OF AN ETHICAL RESEARCH PROJECT USING HUMAN PARTICIPANTS This list presents some of the most important factors that psychologists take into consideration when designing their research: Trust and positive rapport are created between the researcher and the participant. The rights of both the experimenter and participant are considered, and the relationship between them is mutually beneficial. The experimenter treats the participant with concern and respect and attempts to make the research experience a pleasant and informative one. The participant is given a chance to have questions about the procedure answered, thus guaranteeing his or her free  AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION CODE No Harm is he most direct ethical OF concern researcher and prevents harm to the research of the participants. ETHICS Informed consent is conducted before a participant begins a research session, and is designed to explain the research procedures and inform the participant of his or her rights during the investigation. Confidentiality refers to researchers protecting the privacy of research participants. Deception occurs whenever research participants are not completely and fully informed about the nature of the research project before participating in it. This is perhaps the most widespread ethical concern to the participants in behavioral research. Debriefing is a procedure designed to fully explain the purposes and procedures of the research and  PSYCHOLOGISTS USE DESCRIPTIVE, CORRELATIONAL, AND EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS TO UNDERSTAND BEHAVIOR Psychologists agree that if their ideas and theories about human behavior are to be taken seriously, they must be supported by data. However, the research of different psychologists is designed with different goals in mind, and the different goals require different approaches. Research designs are the specific methods a researcher uses to collect, analyze, and interpret data. Descriptive research is research that observes specific behaviors and records the observation. Correlational research is research designed to discover relationships among variables and to allow the prediction of future events from present knowledge. Experimental research is research in which initial equivalence among research participants in more than one group is created, followed by a manipulation of a given experience for these groups and a measurement of the influence of the manipulation.  DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH. Descriptive Research. Descriptive research is designed to create a snapshot of the current thoughts, feelings, or behavior of individuals. This section reviews three types of descriptive research: Case Study: Sometimes the data in a descriptive research project are based on only a small set of individuals, often only one person or a single small group. These research designs are known as case studies or descriptive records of one or more individual’s experiences and behavior. Survey: In other studies, the data from descriptive research projects come in the form of a survey, questions administered through either an interview or a written questionnaire to get a picture of the beliefs or behaviors of a sample of people of interest. Observations: A final type of descriptive research is known as observation. When using naturalistic observation,  CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH. Correlational Research. In contrast to descriptive research, which is designed primarily to provide static pictures, correlational research involves the measurement of two or more relevant variables and an assessment of the relationship among those variables. When variables change in the same direction, the relationship is said to be a positive correlation. In contrast, a negative correlation occurs when values for one variable change in the opposite direction for the other variable.  EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH. The goal of the experimental research is to provide more definitive conclusions about the causal relationships among the variables in the research hypothesis than is available from correlational research. In the experimental research design, the variables of interest are called the independent variable and the dependent variable. The independent variable in an experiment is the causing variable that is created or manipulated by the experimenter. The dependent variable in an experiment is a measured variable that is expected to be influenced by the experimental manipulation.  EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH. A good experiment has at least two groups that are compared. The experimental group receives the experimenters’ manipulation. For example, the experimental group might receive a new medication for depression. The comparison group, often called the control group, receives either no manipulation or nothing out of the ordinary  ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH Experimental designs have two very nice features. For one, they guarantee that the independent variable occurs prior to the measurement of the dependent variable. This eliminates the possibility of reverse causation. Second, the influence of third variables is controlled, and thus eliminated. Despite the advantage of determining causation, experiments do have limitations. One is that they are often conducted in laboratory situations rather than in the everyday lives of people. Second, and more important, is that some of the most interesting and key social variables cannot be  FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO CREDIBLE RESEARCH Validity. Good research is valid research meaning the conclusions drawn by the researcher are legitimate. For instance, if a researcher concludes that participating in psychotherapy reduces anxiety, the research is valid only if the therapy works. Reliability. One threat to valid research is that the measured variables are not reliable or consistent. Statistical Significance. Statistical significance refers to the confidence with which a scientist can conclude that data are not due to chance or random error. A possible threat to validity is experimenter bias, a situation in which the experimenter subtly treats the research  FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO CREDIBLE RESEARCH Double-Blind Experiments: To avoid experimenter bias, researchers frequently run experiments in which the researchers are blind to condition. This means that although the experimenters know the research hypotheses, they do not know which conditions the participants are assigned to. Experimenter bias cannot occur if the researcher is blind to condition. In a double-blind experiment, both the researcher and the research participants are unaware of which subjects are receiving the active treatment. Replication. The process of repeating previous research, which forms the basis of all scientific inquiry, is known as replication.