Psych 1010 Lecture 1 PDF

 Intro to psychology Lecture 1 Psychology: study in behaviour and mental process. Psychologist describe and predict while explaining human actions and mental process Psychology past and present. Theoretical persp...

 Intro to psychology Lecture 1 Psychology: study in behaviour and mental process. Psychologist describe and predict while explaining human actions and mental process Psychology past and present. Theoretical perspectives in originally was part of philosophy psychology have 5 primary school of wil helm Wundt was the first thoughts that have shaped modern psychologist lab in 1879 who studied psychology the mind in terms of structuralism structuralism functionalism Structuralism behaviourism Psychologist: Wilhelm Wundt and E.B cognitivism titchener psychoanalysis Wundt is known as a founder Wilhelm Wundt Created the first psychology lab Both focused on the structure and characteristics of the mind in the lens of introspection E.B titchner Emphasized systematic observation to William James study consciousness Functionalism Psychologist: William James, Americas first psychologist James studied functionally of functionalism cognitive process establishing Understood how the mind work and it's behaviour functions Influenced by the theory of natural selection  Sigmund Psychodynamic Freud Discovered by sigmund Freud Looks into hysteria and neurosis Learned that alot of his patients problems had come John Watson from unconcisos mind Gains access unconscious mind through dream analysis Behaviourism Focused on the role that a person's unconscious had John B. Watson on early childhood experiences Is the father of behaviourism Cognitivism Believes that object Piaget and Neisser analysis of the mind Understood mental process underlying thinking wasn't a possible thing Thinking affects our behaviours not in the lens of Focused on how to records or punishments but interception observe behaviour and studied ways to control it Women in In todays times, psychology Social prejudice behavioural theory and hindered women's Piaget Neisser CBT is used participation Excluded from B.f skinner also looks into behaviourism but grad programs how its affected by consequences Still only Understood the principle of modifying represents 28% behaviour in reinforcement and of facility at punishments which had become a large highest rank factor in driving behaviours Male profs earn roughly $ 5000 B.f skinner  Why we can't always treat common sense Sometimes common sense is Naïve realism correct! And can help with "Seeing is believing" hypothesis generation Consider: The earth seems flat, we seen to Scientific method be stand ding still but the earth is rotating An approach used by not around the sun 30km/see only psychologists but also Scientific theory other scientist to An explanation for a large number of systematically acquire findings in the natural world knowledge and to A testable prediction is called A hypothesis understand about EX: theory- the bystander effect behaviour and other Hypothesis- the more people present at the phenomena scene of an accident, the longe the 1. Identify question of response time will be interest 2. Formulate exploration Bias awareness 3. Carry out research to The best scientist are aware of their support/refute biases! Confirmation bias: tendency to seek at evidence that supports our hypothesis, Psychological pseudoscience neglecting or distorting contrary evidence Imposters of Science EX: police decision making Set of claims that seem Belief perseverance : tendency to stick to scientific but lack defences our initial belief ever when evidence is from bias contradictory The "don't confuse that with the facts”bias  Warning signs Paternity: tendency to Use of psychobabble (ex: energy therapies) detect meaningful Lack of self- correction patterns in random Over reliance on anecdotal evidence stimuli Extraordinary claims without extraordinary evidence The antidote for pseudoscience Finding comfort in our Think scientifically beliefs Separate science from pseudoscience Terror management Avoid common logical fallacies theory: we experience Common logical fallacies & anxiety because we Emotional reasoning fallacy: using emotions rather are aware that death is then evidence inevitable but Bandwagon fallacy: lots of people believe so it must unpredictable be true To manage this anxiety Not me fallacy: other people have those biases not we seek worldviews me that provide meaning purpose and continuity dangers of pseudoscience The theory is tested by Opportunity cost ex: investing time and energy manipulating morality and effort into questionable treatment salience (the extent to Direct harm ex: some times do direct harm to those which death is on our who receive them minds ) Blocks critical thinking: one domain spills over into other critical issues existed cells and gross  Critical thinking: set of skills to evaluate claims open mindedly and carefully Key skills to scientific method thinking critically - thinking scientifically not intuitive requires overcoming biases. 6 principles of scientific thinking ruling out rival hypothesis correlation isn't causation falsifiability replicability extra ordinary claims needs extra ordinary evidence Occam's razor 1. Ruling out rival hypothesis 2. Correlation vs caution Important alternative explanations should A variable is anything that can be considered: higher income is associated vary with lower mortality rates, because people Can he be sure that variable A with money have access to better medical cause variable B care 3. Falsifiability Can this claim be disproven? Good theories are sometimes bold and can be proven wrong EX: all swans are white 4. Replicability 5 extraordinary claims Is it possible to duplicate scientific Is the evidence as a convincing as findings? the claims The more a claim contradicts what 6. Occam's razzor we already know the more Does a simpler explanation for data persuasive the evidence for this equally bell? claim must be before we should Principle of parsimony or kISS accept it (hume) 2 types of psychology Experimental psychology and clinical psychology Experimental: research based Clinical: treatment, assessment and diagnosis, science practitioner model Branches of psychology Neuropsychology Child/developmental psychology I-O psychology Sports psychology Social/ personality psychology Forensic psychology  Research methods Prefrontal lobotomy. Used to treat schizophrenia and other serve mental disorder severed the fibres connecting the frontal lobe and thalamus originally popularized by subjective clinical reports subsequent objective, controlled studies showed it didn't it work and had serious negative effects Stages of research Determine your research question and hypothesis operationalize variables identity your study participants create your study materials do research!!! What is your research Who are your research participants ? question? Populations >sample What are you interested in? Population → entire group of people of What do you want to study? interest EX: psych 1010 at york Common sense assumptions Observations in the real Sample → smaller group of people drawn world from population apart of study EX: 20 Solving real world problems people who actually do a study Understanding how something work Random selection: a key ingredient for generalizability Choosing participants from a larger population in such a way that every person has a equal chance of being selected Helps to ensure sample accurately represents. Operational definition: what populations do you really mean? Important for studies seeking generalizability Translating your research question into specific and Methods toolbox testable procedures that can Naturalistic observation be measured and observed Case study Self report measures and surveys Naturalistic observation Correlational designs (relationship b/w Watching behaviour in a variables ) natural/real world Experimental designs ( cause and effect) Advantages: high external Case studies validity ((generalizable ), rich An in depth analysis of a single person or and detailed information, and setting. Includes detailed descriptive sometimes the only possible accounts of behaviour, history and other option factors like qualitative data Disadvantages: lack of Common when studying or unusual or control, time and resource noteworthy phenomena EX: brain injuries consuming, observer bias, Advantages: rich, detailed descriptions and can't draw cause & and data, sometimes only method effect conclusions Disadvantages: low external validity , EX: how often are university researchers bias students using their laptops in  Case study example: Self-report/survey methods Self-report methods involve collecting data via asking participants to Self report methods describe heir own behaviours and attitude alongside their views and perceptions I Surveys & Interviews questionnaires \ - Self report case study examples —>> Surveys and questionnaires pros & cons Pros: affordable and efficient (large samples, many different variables), Anonymity, "snapshot" of how a group of people think/behave at a given time, infor policy, lawmakers, public agencies ex: NSSE at York Cons:assumption is that people answer honestly and provide meaningful response but careless and random responding or misunderstood questions, response bias: tendency for participants to respond inaccurately or untruthfully (social desirability faking good" responding in away that presents them in a positive light 'Dealing with social desirability Quality of measures: reactivity Question wording Reactivity is a concern a cross Embedding reverse scored items ex: "I hate self- report, behavioural & being the centre of attention" physiological measures Social desirability scales Evaluating measures How do I choose a measure? Reliability: consistency -What is your operational variable and research of measurement question/hypothesis Validity: extent to which -make your own measure OR use established? A measure assess what EX: measuring anxiety it claims to measure. A What is the cost of the measure?: monetary, test must be reliable to practical (compensation) valid but a reliable test What is the quality of the measure?: is it can still be completely reliable?, is it valid invalid Quality of measures: reliability Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure. A test is reliable if it gets the same result repeatedly. Test-retest reliability. Interrupter reliability Inter-rater reliability example Feline preference behaviour with cats Petting the cat, making cute faces at the cat, giving the cat treats Quality of measure: validity Valid refers to how well a measure measures the Correlation/ non- variable its intended to experimental method A measure is valid (high validity ) if it seems to examine the strength actually measure what the construct is designed to of relationship measure between variables variables observed but not manipulated correlation coefficient range from -1.0 to +1.0 positive negative or O higher value means Correlation vs causation. stronger relationship Just because 2 things are related does not mean that 1 thing causes the Third variables / confounds in other correlation Determine causation is only possible A third variable is a outside factor through experimentation! that influence both variables potently EX: A—>B B->A AB creating a false or misleading association between them "Reasearch shows that kids with dogs are happier than those without!!" Does one cause the other? What are some third variable and or confounds? Correlations/non experimental designs: pros & cons Pros- can establish trends across large amounts of data, good for describing Experimental method behaviour, can be used to product future.research designs that focus behaviour, something necessary due to on determining causal influence ethical issues between variables Cons- can't infer causal direction, third at least 1 variable is variable problem cake confounding variable manipulated and I is measured or observed random assignments of Experimental research: the independent participants to experimental variable or control group Operationalization should have at least Independent variable (IV) is 2 levels or conditions manipulated by researchers Ex: experimental condition VS control causes change in other variables condition (different levels = different Treatment vs placebo experimental conditions) High IV vs low IV Dependent variable are affected The relation between sleep and test by changes in IV it's measured by scores: conditions/levels research No sleep (0hours) Little sleep ( 1-4 hours) Sufficient sleep (5 to 8 hours)  Experimental designs Control condition Interval validity related to - lacks any treatment or manipulation of the IV how well a study is design & - basis for comparison! conducted Ex: testing a headache relief medication High interval validity: a high IV: type of medication like Advil and Tylenol degree of certainty that the DV: pain (1 -10 scale) IV caused changes in the DV Stanford marshmallow experiment Confound: a variable not of Delay of gratification test interest that varies along Ps: recruited from Stanford university Bing with the IV could provide an nursery school alternative explanation Results: preschoolers delay times were (threatens internal validity) significantly affected by experimental Pitfalls of experiment condition's (physical presence/ absence of Placebo effect: improvement treats) because you expect Delay of time related to later-age outcomes like improvement, subjects must sat scores and positive functioning and BMI be blind (unaware of which Large scale replication in 2018 found only treatment they receive) weak correlations but difference between high Nocebo effect: harm and low SES children resulting from the expectation of carne Pitfalls of experiments: experimental lab Expectany effect: researchers hypothesis led to unintentionally bias outcome,double blind designs prevent this Demand characteristics: cues the participants pick up allowing them to guess the researcher hypothesis, disguising the study's purpose can-decrease this Disturbing problems: the replication crisis What is replication? Half to three quarters of psychology Replication is the repetition of studies are hard to replicate findings previously presented or published 2 types of replication: exact/ direct replication and conceptual replication Reasons for non replication: Data fraud: diederik stapel Falsified data Social psychologist in Netherlands Sample size Fabricated data in dozens of studies Culturally and generationally specific completely made up results! Poor replication quality Research on racial stereotyping & social norms 50 papers retracted & fired Openness & transparency Shore research in public archives and invites reanalysis and replication attempts Replicates your work, and work of others before proceeding to new questions Preregister (hypotheses design and analysis) Encourage publication of sound science even if it contradicts existing theories Less emphasis on single studies, more emphasis on reviews/ meta-anaylsis  Protection from harm & discomfort Psychologist must take reasonable steps to avoid harm to research participants EX: not harm them, not cause psychological distress and provide them with counselling services When is it okay not to be fully informed? Purely observation research Special populations (EX: minors →assent) Deception & debriefing Research required deception: If deception is used porticappts should be Needed in cases where knowing informed ASAP the truth purpose would change Participants shouldn't be deceived about their behaviour of response (ex: research procedures that may cause the bystander effect) physical or emotional distress EX: research Are not told purpose of study on sexual harassment Misled (given a false purpose) or After study is concluded, participants not told) should be fully debriefed about true nature of research  Biological psychology Every psychological is also biological: ideas, moods, urges Biological psychology Brain mapping methods: phrenology Studies the relationship between Phrenology was one of the earliest the nervous system and behaviour Skull shape thought to reflect brain size Researcher are biological and congitive function psychologist or neuroscientists Discredited by mid - 1800's Dark history: believe that bumps could identity criminal tendencies, linked to Brain imaging eugenics Techniques involving radiation: CT scan, PET scan Techniques involving magnetic Brain mapping methods: brain damage fields: MRI, FMI Understanding how the brain works by Techniques involving electric seeing how it doesn't activity: EEG Studies of cognitive function in people with brain damage (part of Computerized tomography (CT) neuropsychology) scan Neuropsychology test are used to Involves X-ray and creates an image assess cognitive function through X-rays passing through Test must be carefully designed to varied densities within the brain accommodate influences of language A CT scan be used to show brain and culture tumours Studies of behaviour in animals with controlled brain lesions Positron emission tomography (PET) scan Magnetic resonance imaging Helpful for showing brain activity (MRI) &FRMI Involves injection of mildly radioactive Magnetic fields used to produce substance and monitoring changes in blood picture of tissue flow to different brain areas Functional MRI shows changes in metabolic activity over time Electroencephalograph (EEG) Recording electrical activity of brain via electrodes on scalp EEG research can study precise timing of overall brain activity by tracking amplitude and frequency Challenging to study small areas Brain mapping continued Magnetoncephalography (Meg): measures tiny magnetic fields generated by the brain Used to identify location of epilepsy related seizures Brain mapping continued Deep brain stimulation (dbs): modify brain function through implanted electrodes, used as a treatment for disorders like Parkinson's and depression Transcranial magnetic Simulation (TMS): Applies strong and quickly changing magnetic fields to the surface of the skull that can ether enhance or interrupt brain function Interpreting brain imaging The nervous system: an overview They are NOT photos of the brain in action Neurons: are the building block! How brain activity during an activity of Consistently created and primed interest increases and decreases or differs during life relative to a control (experimental - Action potentials: nerve impulse control) or electrical signals that travel Brain area activity on brain scan could down a axon mean neurons are inhibiting rather than Glial cells: support, nourish & exciting protect neurons Scientifically extremely persuasive (like Neurons meet at synapses expert testimony) problematic when Neurons communicate through introduced into courtroom (EX: to prove neurotransmission diminished culpability) Neutrons = queen bee Glial cells = worker bees Neurons: the brain's communicators Neurons are nerve cells specialized in Glial cells communication with each other Glial means glue Building blocks of the nervous system Plentiful in the brain Transmit information in the form of Play valuable support role, involved electrical signals in psychological functioning (ex: make myelin) Myelin sheath Bodyguards: feed & protect Fatty insulation from glial cells surrounding axon Multiple sclerosis (Ms): loss of myelin causes erratic signal Cell body (soma): Dendrites: branchlike centre of neuron builds extensions that receive new cell components information Axon terminal: knob at the Axons: "tails" that end of the axon containing transmit information synaptic vesicles filled with neurotransmitters Synapse (synaptic clef): Neural space between neurons through which NT’s travel (meeting place) components How does a neuron fire? Electrical implase is called the action potential Step 1: resting potential Neuron is polarized (negative inside, positive outside) Selectively permeable - gates don't allow sodium ions (Na +) to pass through Step 2: action potential- brief electrical charge that travels down neuron Transmits neural messages to other neurons, muscles, etc When stimulated neuron depolarize (gates open and Na + rushes in) All or none law Frequency = intensity Step 3: depolarization Potassium flows out repolarzing the axon Step 4: return to resting potential Step 5: refractory period Brief period of time where neurons won't fire no matter how much stimulation ' Electrochemical communication Neurotransmitter When an electrical signals reaches the end of an Chemical messengers axon (electro) it triggers the release of that help neurons neurotransmitters into the synapse (chemical) communicate with each Neurotransmitters then bind to receptors of other receiving neurons dendrites transmitting the Influence emotions & signal mood (serotonin & Excitatory: messages that make it more likely a dopamine) neuron will fire Control movements Inhibitory: messages that make it less likely that A (acetycholine) neuron will fire Regulate sleep and alertness (GABA & Neurotransmission norepinephrine) Release: action potential triggers Learning & memory neurotransmitter (NT) released from vesicles (glutamate) into the synaptic cleft Implicated in mental Nt's bind to receptors on the postsynaptic illness neuron (Lock and key) Reuptake: excess NT’s are removed by drifting away, being broken down, or reabsorbed Reuptake:NT’s are taken back into the presynaptic neuron (recycling!) Some drugs (ex: cocaine) block reuptake prolonging NT effects Neurotransmitters: helpers & blockers Agonist: mimic or enhance the effect of a.Neurotransmitters neurotransmitter (helpers) Glutamate Antagonist: block or impedes the normal activity of a GABA neurotransmitter (blocker) Acetylcholine Opioids (ex: fentanyl) vs. Naloxore Dopamine Schizophrenia associated with excess dopamine → Serotonin dopamine antagonists Anandchires Parkinson's associated with low dopamine → prescribed dopamine agonist Glutamate & GABA Most common NT in the CNS Associated with learning and memory Glutamate is excitatory and increases the chance neurons will communicate Toxic in high doses may contribute to schizophrenia and other mental disorder GABA is inhibitory dampening neural activity Acetylcholine Arousal, selective attention, memory, sleep Anticholinergic: benadryl, unison increases risk of dementia Alzheimer's → neurons containing acetylcholine are destroyed leads to memory lost Aricepts → boost acetylcholine levels Insecticide limits breakdown (more acetylcholine) Dopamine Pleasure and reward voluntary movement Attention Parkinson's → deficit of dopamine Schizophrenia+ symptoms → excess dopamine Serotonin Selective serotonin reuptake Sleeping, eating, mood, pain, depression inhibitor (ssri) Increase serotonin by: eating foods rich in Used to treat depression tryptophan, working out "runner's high", Blocks reuptake of serotonin light exposure depression drugs act on Zoloft, Prozac, lexapro serotonin - increase availability Agonist or antagonist? MDMA cause massive release empties tank Neural plasticity The brain is adaptable and can change Myelination: makes neurons faster, brain regions more efficient Pruning: reorganizing to make Bain more efficient! Remove some synaptic connections(ex: pruning an appletree) Plasticity decreases in adulthood  The nervous system Consits of brain and neurons It = extending throughout the body. Peripheral nervous system Central nervous system Made up of long axons and Consists of the brain and spinal dendrites it contains all part of the cord ' nervous system other than the brain and spinal cord Brain: an organ roughly the Spinal cord: bundle of nerves that size of a loaf of bread that leaves the brain and runs down the constantly controls length of the back transmit messages Somatic divisor Autonomic division behaviour between the brain and body (voluntary) (involuntary) Specializes in the control Concerned with the of voluntary movements partsat the body and the communication function involuntary with of. information to and out our awareness from the sense organs 4 Sympathetic division Parasympathetic division Acts to prepare the body in stressful Acts to calm the body after en emergency situation has emergency situations engaging engaged the sympathetic division provides a mean for the body resource to respond to a threat to maintain storage of energy  Midbrain & forebrain Intergenerational trauma Midbrain: controls movement and 1st observed in kids of the holocaust survivors - transmits info that enables seeing also Vietnam in US residential schools survivors in & hearing (relays info between the Canada brain and the eyes and ears) Assumed that trauma was passed down though Forebrain: manages complex ent or behavioural cognitive activity, sensory & PTSD associated with changes in brain structure,associative functions and function & chemistry which maybe passed down -voluntary motor activities makes brain more vulnerable to trauma Major components: cerebral complex, thalamus, Hindbrain hypothalamus,lambic system Reptilian/ primitive brain: controls basic functions like eating, sleeping Major components: Medulla- vital function like controlling heartbeat, muscle involved with breathing, vomiting, blood pressure,swallowing, etc. Pons- sleep & arousal Cerebellum-motor coordination (ex: timing of leg & arm movement) Reticular activating system - key in arousal (regulating sleep& wakefulness), directing attention - dysregulated in ADHD brains Cerebral cortex Higher mental process (sense, self, reasoning) Consists of 2 cerebral hemispheres (4 lobes) connected by the corpus callous Contralateral control Cerebral cortex: lobes Lobes - Frontal: planning, decision making Parietal: sensation (somatosensory) Temporal: auditory Occipital vision Lateralization Cognitive function that relics on I side of the brain than the other Left hemisphere: fine-tuned language skills (speech-comprehension, production, reading, writing, eye Actions (making facial expressions, motion detection) Right hemisphere: Coarse language skills (simple speech, simple writing& tone of voice) Visuospatial skills (perceptual grouping, face perception) Split brain surgery Procedure that involves severing the corpus callosum to reduce the spread of epileptic seizure Frontal lobes Phineas gage: PC damage Planning, executive functions, motor Railroad foreman in 1848 Most sophistical into processes in Vermont Brocás area: language production Tamping iron exploded and Motor complex: responsible for body movement thrust into his head Prefrontal cortex: thinking, planning, and Destroyed most of his left language the "CEO" prefrontal cortex Remarkable behavioural Psychopathy connection change following injury PFC important for thoughtful decisions, controlling impulses, Parietal lobe regulating emotions Somatosensory Brain injuries involving cortex: sensitive to Temporal lobe PFC results in pressure, pain and Hearing, understanding "pseudopsychopathy" temp language, storing People with psychopathic Communicates info autobiographic memories traits sometimes have to the motor cortex Contains auditory cortex abnormalities or reduced every time we reach, and wernike’s area activity in PFC grasp or more our responsible for language PFC damage linked to eyes comprehension changes in moral judgment, deficits in guilt, empathy, learning from punishment Occipital lobe Specialized for vision processing and higher order visual functions (EX: recognizing complex shapes ) Located at he back of the brain "Seeing stars" activated your visual cortex! Damage can lead to prosopagnosia (face Limbic system blindness), visual agnosia Emotional center also a role in spell, motivation and Limbic system memory Amygdala: plays key role in fear, aggression, Hypothalamus: regulates & excitement & arousal controls internal bodily Damage makes its impossible to recognize states (homeostasis) facial expressions for threats / distress Controls pituitary gland also Memories are not store here affects body temp, hunger & thirst, sexual behaviour, etc. Thalamus: relays to info from the sense organs to primary sensory cortex  Overview Nervous system: primary communication systems of the body ( fast, electrochemical communications) CNS → brain & spinal cord Peripheral nervous system PNS → sensory and motor neurons 1. Somatic nervous system connecting to CNS to the rest of the conveys info from CNS to body muscles Endocrine system: second 2. Autonomic nervous system communication system (slower, controls all the involuntary secretes hormones into bloodstream movement of the body (EX: heart, breathing and other organs) which divides into the Autonomic nerves system sympatheic nervous system & Sympathetic: fight or flight parasympathetic nervous Parasympathetic: rest & digest system When I is active other is inactive Polygraph Use of physiological measures linked to ANS (EX: galvanic skin and heart rate to "detect deception" How could you fool-a polygraph Pituitary gland Controlled by the hypothalamus In turn controls the other glands in the Oxytocin: the love hormone body Chid- mother attachment Release hormones that influence Mothers with higher levels at growth, blood pressure, and other oxytocin across pregnancy & functions postpartum reported more Oxytocin: responsible for numerous behaviours that support reproductive functions, implicated in attachment, committed to infant maternal & romantic love safety (Feldman et al... 2007) Maybe key in trust Ps given synthetic oxytocin gave more money to a stranger than control group (bond required for behaviour) "Oxytocin is a social glue... Makes US care about other people" Sensation & perception