Psychology 10 Study Guide PDF

Lecture 2 (Ch 1): Human Development and Theories ​ Grand theories ○​ Freud (psychosexual) ⟶​ Personality development is sex driven (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital stages) ⟶​ Id, ego, superego ⤷​ Id: instinct-driven, p...

Lecture 2 (Ch 1): Human Development and Theories ​ Grand theories ○​ Freud (psychosexual) ⟶​ Personality development is sex driven (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital stages) ⟶​ Id, ego, superego ⤷​ Id: instinct-driven, pleasure seeking ⤷​ Ego: rational and logical, balances the id’s impulses ⤷​ Superego: moral conscious, ideal behavior ○​ Erikson (psychosocial) ⟶​ Emphasize social and cultural factors influencing personality more than biological factors ⟶​ viewed the developmental process as continuing throughout the life span rather than ending in adolescence ⟶​ Trust vs mistrust, autonomy vs. shame, initiative vs guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs stagnation, integrity vs despair ○​ Piaget (constructivist) ⟶​ Cognitive development results from children’s active construction of reality, based on their experiences with the world ⤷​ Children’s biologically driven motivation to learn and explore ⟶​ Learning is not a passive reception of information but an active process of assimilation and accommodation ⤷​ Schemas ⤻​ Assimilation: incorporate new info/experiences into existing schemas ⤻​ Accommodation: new info/experiences cause you to change existing schemas ⤻​ Equilibration: achieving a balance between the child’s present understanding and the child’s new experiences ⟶​ Believed children progress through series of stages ⤷​ Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational ○​ Vygotsky (sociocultural)  ⟶​ Cognitive development is primarily influenced by social interactions and cultural tools ⤷​ Learning = social interaction and zone of proximal development ⤻​ Zone of proximal development: the gap between what children can accomplish independently and what they can accomplish when they are interacting with others who are more competent ○​ Watson & Skinner (Behaviorism) ⟶​ Behaviors are reinforced; if you give consequences, children will learn ⤷​ Classical and operant conditioning ⤷​ Rewards / punishments ⟶​ Personality and behavior are continuously shaped by individuals learning experiences ​ Modern theories ○​ Evolutionary ⟶​ How human behavior contributes to survival and how our evolutionary past continues to influence individual development; adaptive behaviors ○​ Social Learning ⟶​ Rooted in behaviorism; emphasize behavior–consequence ⟶​ Learning occurs through observation and interaction with others in social situations ○​ Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory) ⟶​ Development occurs through systems (chronosystem, macrosystem, exosystem, mesosystem, microsystem) ⤷​ Chronosystem: major environmental events, life altering personal transitions, significant socio-historical events ⤻​ Changes over time ⤷​ Macrosystem: cultural values, customs, government policies ⤻​ Social and cultural values ⤷​ Exosystem: local government, mass media, school board, parents’ workplace ⤻​ Indirect environments ⤷​ Mesosystem: religious settings, home, school, neighborhood ⤻​ Connections between environments ⤷​ Microsystem: siblings, peers, parents, etc  ⤻​ closest environment to the individual ​ Key issues ○​ Sources of development (nature vs nurture) ⟶​ Genetics (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) influence individual development ⤷​ Maturation, induction, facilitation, and maintenance ○​ Plasticity/sensitive periods ⟶​ Plasticity: brain’s ability to adapt and reorganize itself by forming new neural connections ⟶​ Sensitive: specific windows of time during development when the brain is particularly receptive to certain environmental inputs ○​ Continuity/discontinuity ⟶​ Continuity: suggests that development is a gradual, continuous process ⟶​ Discontinuity: development occurs in distinct, qualitative stages with abrupt shifts in behaviors or abilities ○​ Individual differences ⟶​ What makes people different from another even in similar environments ​ Research methods ○​ Longitudinal ⟶​ Repeated examination of same individuals to detect changes over extended period of time ○​ Cross sectional ⟶​ Compare different age groups at the same time to examine age-related differences ○​ Microgenetic ⟶​ Individual’s development is studied intensively over short period of time ○​ Cohort-sequential ⟶​ Combines longitudinal and cross sectional approaches by studying several cohorts over time Lecture 2 (Ch 2): Biocultural Foundations ​ Biology ○​ Genotype vs phenotype ⟶​ Genotype: genetic makeup of an individual  ⟶​ Phenotype: an organism’s observable physical, behavioral, and psychological characteristics that result from interaction of the genotype with the environment ○​ Heritability ⟶​ A measure of the degree to which a variation in a particular trait among individuals in a specific population is related to genetic differences among those individuals ○​ Twin studies ⟶​ Environment can play a role ⟶​ Groups of monozygotic (identical) and dizygotic (fraternal) twins of the same sex are compared to each other and to other family members for similarity on a given trait ​ Baldwin effect and coevolution of biology and culture ○​ Baldwin effect: role of cultural factors in determining which phenotypes are adaptive ○​ Coevolution: process that emerges from the interaction of biological evolution and cultural evolution ​ Gene environment interaction ○​ Refers to the way in which an individual’s genes and their environment interact to influence a trait or disease ​ Niche co-construction ○​ The child is not just a passive receiver, but a co-constructor of what they bring to the environment ​ Lactose tolerance, sickle cell anemia, down syndrome ○​ Lactose tolerance ⟶​ Most adults do not benefit from nutritional content of milk because they don't produce enough lactase (enzyme needed to break down the milk sugar lactose) ⤷​ Ability to produce lactase is present in all newborn mammals, normally declines after weaning ⤷​ Some adults can digest it because they have a variant allele of the gene responsible for producing lactase; allele overrides the normal postweaning shutdown ○​ Sickle cell anemia ⟶​ People who inherit the recessive gene from both parents (are homozygous for it) have abnormal red blood cells ○​ Down syndrome  ⟶​ disruption in the normal process of genetic transmission ⟶​ Error during meiosis, creates extra genetic material Lecture 3: Prenatal Development ​ Stages ○​ Germinal ⟶​ Begins at conception and lasts until the developing organism becomes attached to walls of uterus; 8-10 days ⤷​ Fertilization, implantation, start of placenta ○​ Embryonic ⟶​ From the time the organism becomes attached to uterus until the end of the 8th week; all major organs have taken primitive shape ⤷​ Groundwork laid for all body structures and internal organs ○​ Fetal (key events & timing) ⟶​ Begins 9th week after conception, with the first signs of hardening of the bones, and continues until birth ⤷​ Primitive organ systems develop to the point where the baby can exist outside the mother without medical support ​ Maturational sequences ○​ Cephalocaudal ⟶​ The pattern of development proceeds from the head down ○​ Proximodistal ⟶​ The pattern of development that proceeds from the middle of the organism out to the periphery ○​ Mass-to-specific ⟶​ Progression from generalied, whole body movements to more precise, controlled movements of individual body parts ​ Epigenetics, phenotypic plasticity, canalized traits ○​ Epigenesis: the process by which new phenotypic form emerges through the interactions of the preceding form and its current environment ○​ Phenotypic plasticity: the degree to which the phenotype is open to influence by the environment rather than determined by the genotype ⟶​ e.g., traits w low plasticity (eye color) the genotype is strongly influential  ○​ Canalized traits: follows a strictly defined path, regardless of most environmental and genetic variations ​ Age of viability, sensory development timeline ○​ Age of viability ⟶​ the age at which the fetus is able to survive outside the uterus ⟶​ ~ 7 months ○​ Sensory development ⟶​ Touch: ~ 8 weeks after conception ⟶​ Sensing motion: ~ 5 months after ⟶​ Seeing: ~ 6 months after ⟶​ Hearing: ~ 5-6 months ​ Teratogens ○​ Anything harmful for the fetus (substances, pollution, etc) ○​ Especially vulnerable in first 2 weeks for death; afterwards, different systems affected differently ← sensitive period!!!! ○​ Most over counter drugs are fine (pain relievers, anti nausea, sleep meds, etc) ⟶​ Thalidomide ⤷​ Founded to cause birth defects, taken off the shelf now ⟶​ Tobacco ⤷​ Stillbirth, neonatal birth, abnormal limbs ⟶​ Alcohol ⤷​ Fetal alcohol syndrome/ fetal alcohol spectrum disorder ⤻​ Abnormal appearance, low intelligence, hearing/vision problems ⟶​ Marijuana ⤷​ Linked to neurological deficits ⟶​ Cocaine ⤷​ still/premature birth, irritability, slower learner ⟶​ Methamphetamine ⤷​ Abnormally small ⟶​ Heroin and methadone ⤷​ Babies are born addicted and must be given the drug after birth to avoid life threatening withdrawal ⤷​ Premature, underweight, respiratory illnesses ​ Fetal learning  ○​ Recognizing mother’s voice ○​ Native vs foreign language ​ Neural tube defect, folic acid, timing ○​ Folic acid is essential to the normal development of the fetus’ neural tubes ○​ Neural tubes: embryonic structure that later develops into the brain and spinal cord ⟶​ Defects include spina bifida, spinal cord fails to close completely; and anencephaly, a fatal disorder in which larger portions of the brain and skull are missing ​ Undernourished/malnourished /overnourished ○​ Undernourished/malnourished: prone to miscarriages, babies born w low birth weight which can lead to physical, cognitive, emotional, and learning disabilities ○​ Overnourished: overweight birth weight, can lead to diabetes and obesity ​ Maternal stress ○​ Caused by war, natural disasters, anxiety, etc ⟶​ Related to low birth weight and smaller head circumferences, more behavioral developmental issues, fussiness/fearfulness ​ Birth ○​ APGAR scores ⟶​ To see how physically healthy the baby is ⤷​ Uses five vital signs: heart rate, respiratory effort, muscle tone, reflex responsivity, and color ⟶​ How do social class, psychological stress, etc effect the score Lecture 4: First 3 months ​ Basics of neuron ○​ Neuron ⟶​ nerve cell ○​ Myelination ⟶​ The process by which axons are covered by myelin sheaths ○​ Synapses ⟶​ Tiny gap between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite of another ⤷​ Axon: the main protruding branch of a neuron; carries messages to other cells in the form of electrical impulses ⤷​ Dendrites: the protruding parts of a neuron that receive messages from the axons of other cells  ○​ Neurotransmitters ⟶​ A chemical secreted by a neuron sending a message that carries the impulse across the synaptic gap to the receiving cell ​ Brain development ○​ Synaptogenesis ⟶​ Process of synapse formation ○​ Pruning ⟶​ The process of selective dying-off of nonfunctional synapses ○​ Plasticity ⟶​ Brain’s ability to reorganize its structure and function in response to internal and external stimuli ​ Experience-expectant vs experience-dependent development ○​ EE: processes of brain development that seem to anticipate experiences that are universal in all normally developing members of our species ⟶​ Language development overall ○​ ED: development of neural connections that is initiated in response to experience ⟶​ Being able to develop a second language ​ Romanian orphanage study takeaways ○​ How a child’s environment when they're very young affects them when they're older ⟶​ Early life adversity: profound and pervasive deprivation experienced during infancy, often resulting in severe developmental delays ○​ Sleeper effects ⟶​ situations where initial experiences have delayed impact, their effects become more pronounced over time ​ Infant sensory systems ○​ Vision ⟶​ Basic anatomical components are present but not fully developed ⟶​ Limited visual sharpness (visual acuity), movements of baby’s eyes are not coordinated well enough to align the images on the two retinas to form a clear image ⤷​ Baby’s vision is blurry ○​ Hearing ⟶​ Newborns can distinguish the sound of the human voice from other kinds of sounds  ⟶​ Especially attuned to the sounds of language ⟶​ During first 7 months of life, babies can distinguish phonemes from any of the world’s languages ⤷​ Phonemes: the smallest sound categories in human speech that distinguish meanings ○​ Taste/smell ⟶​ Newborns have built in capacity to discriminate between different tastes and odors; they show strong preferences for things that taste/smell sweet ⟶​ Babies only 2 hours old can produce different facial expressions in response to bitter, sour, and salty tastes ⤷​ Evidence that these facial expressions are innate ○​ Multimodal ⟶​ The ability to perceive an object or event by more than one sensory system simultaneously; combine multiple senses ​ Face recognition (unique to faces or not) ○​ Babies were able to recognize faces similar to their own race, or what they are usually exposed to ​ Habituation ○​ Babies will look at something that is more interesting then get bored ​ Perceptual narrowing (languages and faces from different ethnicities) ○​ Brain uses environmental experiences to shape perceptual abilities ⟶​ Language phoneme discrimination ⟶​ Face recognition according to race ​ Temperament ○​ Temperament: consistent way of responding to the environment ⟶​ Effortful control ⤷​ Control over what one attends to and reacts to ⟶​ Negative affectivity ⤷​ The extent of negative emotions ⟶​ Extraversion ⤷​ The extent to which one engages eagerly and happily with people and activities ​ SIDS and safe sleep ○​ Babies sleep on their backs !!!! Lecture 5: Infant Cognition and Motor Development ​ Motor development ○​ 6 months ⤷​ Put toys/objects in mouth, reaches hand to grasp, shakes rattle, moves toy from one hand to other ○​ 12 months ⤷​ Grasps small objects with thumb and index finger, bangs objects together, puts small objects in cup/container ○​ 18 months ⤷​ Pulls off hat, socks, mittens, tuns pages of book, stacks 2 blocks, carries toy while walking, scribbles with crayons ○​ 24 months ⤷​ Drinks from straw, feeds self with spoon, builds tower of 3-4 blocks, opens cabinets, drawers, etc ​ Maturation vs practice (cross-cultural differences) ○​ Maturation ⤷​ Hopi indigenous families from US, babies are tightly swaddled ⤻​ Swaddled vs not; both groups did not differ in the age they began to walk ○​ Practice ⤷​ Kipsigis families in Kenya ⤻​ Teach their babies to sit up, stand, and walk not long after birth ⤻​ Reach developmental milestones 5 weeks earlier and walking 3 weeks earlier than US babies (bad at stairs) ⤷​ Ache nomadic families in Paraguay ⤻​ Are slower than US babies in walking, began walking 1 year later ⤻​ By age 5 they are deemed old enough to be independent so they increase their motor skills, can climb trees ⤷​ Back-to-sleep movement ⤻​ Intended to prevent SIDS, but delays crawling by 2 months ⤻​ “Tummy time” encouraged to practice pushing themselves up ​ Sticky mittens ○​ Understanding the intention of grabbing something  ○​ 3 month olds given velcro mittens to have objects come to them; increases their interest and reach for objects earlier ​ Visual cliff ○​ Gives illusion of dangerous height, 7-9 month olds gain this wariness ⤷​ Fear of heights ⤻​ Supported by visual proprioception; the visual feedback that one gwts from moving around, linked to the development of wariness of heights in infancy ○​ Social referencing ⤷​ Infants’ tendency to look to their caregiver for an indication of how to feel and act in unfamiliar situations ​ Piaget’s sensorimotor substages (reflexes to symbolic play) ○​ Emphasizes the relationship between sensing the world and acting upon it ​ Object permanence ○​ The understanding that objects have substance, maintain their identity when their location is changed, and ordinarily continue to exist when out of sight ⤷​ Even if baby passes object permanence, they may not pass A-not-B error ⤻​ A-not-b error: child remembers existence of objects but can't reason systemically about it; does not have true representation of the object ○​ Babies just might not remember ​ Violation of Expectation Method ○​ A test of mental representation in which the child is habituated to an event and then presented with possible and impossible variants of the event  ⤷​ Infants as young as 2 ½ months of age looked longer ar the impossible event than the possible one ⤻​ This suggests that they had formed mental representations of their past experiences with the habituation events ​ Early reasoning ○​ Counting ⤷​ Babies recognize when the number of objects has increased/decreased ○​ Categorization ⤷​ Infants display ability to form categories by 4-6 months ○​ Means-end behavior ⤷​ Can do action and coordination (means) to achieve a goal (end) ⤻​ Problem solving! ⤻​ Start to do around 8-12 months