Developmental Psychology Review, PDF

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY CHAPTER 1 : Foundations of Human c.​ Nonnormative life events – unusual Development occurrences that have a major impact on the individual’s...

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY CHAPTER 1 : Foundations of Human c.​ Nonnormative life events – unusual Development occurrences that have a major impact on the individual’s life. DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCH 7. Development involves growth, -​ the study of physical, mental, and maintenance, and regulation of loss – As behavioral changes, from conception individuals age into middle and late adulthood, through old age the maintenance and regulation of loss in their -​ It investigates biological, genetic, capacities take center stage away from growth. neurological, psychosocial, cultural and environmental factors of human growth DEVELOPMENT -​ It is primarily concerned with -​ the pattern of change that begins at CHANGE. conception and continues through the -​ Study how HEREDITY and lifespan. It involves growth, although it ENVIRONMENT interact to produce also includes decline brought on by change aging and dying. -​ overall goal of developmental psychology is to understand the “whole” [Basic Principles of Development] person 1.​ Development is orderly and follows a sequential pattern which is predictable. [Perspective Of Dev Psych] 2.​ Development is a product of the 1.​ Development is lifelong - Early interaction of maturation and learning. adulthood is not the endpoint of For maturation to take place, an development; rather, no age period adequate and appropriate environment is dominates development. needed. 2.​ Development is multidimensional – It 3.​ There are individual differences in consists of biological, cognitive, and development. socioemotional dimensions. At every 4.​ Each phase of development has a age, changes occur in every dimension. characteristic behavior. 3.​ Development is multidirectional – Throughout life, some dimensions or Prenatal (Conception to Birth) : components of a dimension expand and -​ Hereditary endowments are fixed others shrink. Infancy (Birth to 2 yrs old) : 4.​ Development is plastic - -​ Foundation Age Developmental changes occur Early Childhood (2to 6 yrs) : throughout the lifespan and can be -​ Exploratory Age/Pre-Gang Age drastically altered at any point in time. Late Childhood (6 to 12 yrs) : Plasticity means the capacity to change. -​ Gang & Creativity Age 5.​ Development is multidisciplinary – Adolescence (Puberty to 18 yrs) : Psychologists, sociologists, -​ Transition Age/sex anthropologists, and other fields, all -​ maturation/rapid physical development share interest in unlocking the mysteries Early Adulthood (18 to 40 yrs) : of development. -​ Age of adjustment to new patterns of 6.​ Development is contextual – All life development occurs within a context or Middle Age (40 yrs to retirement): setting. Contexts include families, -​ Transition Age/ initial physical & schools, peer groups, churches, and so mental decline on. Contexts change. Old Age (Retirement to Death) : [TYPES OF INFLUENCES] -​ Retirement Age/ rapid physical and a.​ Normative age-graded influences - mental decline biological and environmental influences 5.​ Early foundations are critical that are similar for individuals in a 6.​ Each phase of development has hazards particular age group 7.​ There are social expectations for every b.​ Normative history-graded influences stage of development – common to people of a particular generation because of historical circumstances. HUMAN BEHAVIOR 5.​ Naturalistic Observation – focuses on -​ the way people act and respond to children’s experiences in natural situations. Genetic and environmental settings. factors affect how people respond to 6.​ Longitudinal Method – studies and their environment. follows through a single group over a 1.​ Physical factors – age, health, illness, period of time. The same individuals are pain, and the effects of substances or studied over a period of time. medications. 7.​ Cross – Sectional Method – a research 2.​ Personal and emotional factors – strategy in which individuals of different personality, beliefs, expectations, ages are compared at one time. emotions, and mental health. 8.​ Sequential Method – this is the 3.​ Life experiences – family, culture, combined cross-sectional and friends and life events. longitudinal approaches to learn about life-span development. [Biological Basis of Human Development] 9.​ Action Research – is a reflective -​ the process of physical and process of progressive problem-solving psychological growth that occurs from led by individuals working with others conception to death. It's influenced by in teams to improve the way they genetics, environment, and lifestyle. address issues and solve problems. [Process] -​ Fertilization -​ Cell division LIFE SPAN PERSPECTIVE -​ Implantation -​ theory that human development is a -​ Fetal development lifelong process that involves growth -​ Birth and decline. Influenced by factors that -​ Childhood and adolescence are biological, historical, and [Biological Factors] sociocultural in nature. Genetics, Brain function, Neurotransmitters, Hormones, Physical health [Factors Affecting Development] 1.​ Internal factors – things that are unique [Scientific Method in Human Development] to the individual that can influence -​ involve using the standard scientific development. process – observation, hypothesis ​ Genetics – refers to how genes and formation, data collection, analysis, and traits are passed down from one conclusion drawing. generation to the next. ​ Physical maturation (hormones) – the Methods of Data Collection physical growth and development that 1.​ Observation (laboratory or real world) humans go through till old age. 2.​ Survey and interview Hormones play a large part in many of 3.​ Standardized test our daily functions. 4.​ Case study ​ Cognition – the mental process that 5.​ Physiological measures takes place in the brain.​ Research Designs 2.​ External factors – things that are 1.​ Descriptive – describes a situation or outside of the individual that can scenario statistically. It aims to observe influence development. and record behavior. ​ Socioeconomic factors (Family income, 2.​ Correlational – its goal is to describe education) the strength of the relation between two ​ Availability of resources (Nutrition, or more events or characteristics Exercise) 3.​ Experimental – allows for ​ Social influences (Family, Culture, cause-and-effect conclusions. Ethnicity) -​ Independent and dependent variables -​ Experimental and control groups [Periods of Development] 4.​ Case Study – an in-depth study of a -​ a time frame in a person’s life that is specific subject, such as a person, group, characterized by certain features. place, event, organization or 1.​ The prenatal period involves phenomenon. tremendous growth, from a single cell to  an organism complete with brain and CHAPTER 2: Developmental Theories​ behavioral capabilities. 2.​ During infancy many psychological FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY activities are just beginning (language, -​ He identified specific erogenous zones symbolic thought, sensorimotor for each stage which are “pleasure coordination, and social learning). areas” that become focal points for the 3.​ The term toddler is often used to particular stage. describe a child from about 1 ½ to 3 a.​ Oral Stage (Birth to 18 months) years of age -​ erogenous zone is the mouth 4.​ Early childhood or preschool years is -​ Too much or too little satisfaction can the time where young children learn to lead to an Oral Fixation or Oral become more self-sufficient and to care Personality for themselves, develop school readiness -​ Oral receptive or Oral aggressive skills personality 5.​ During middle and late childhood b.​ Anal Stage (18 months to 3 yrs) children master the fundamental skills of -​ The child’s focus of pleasure is the anus. reading, writing, and arithmetic, and Finds satisfaction in eliminating and they are formally exposed to the larger retaining feces. world and its culture. -​ Anal retentive or anal expulsive 6.​ Adolescence begins with rapid physical personality changes, such as dramatic gains in c.​ Phallic Stage (3 to 6 yrs). height and weight, changes in body -​ The pleasure or erogenous zones are the contour, and the development of sexual genitals. Children become interested in characteristics. what makes boys and girls different. 7.​ Early adulthood is a time of establishing ​ Oedipus Complex (boy attracted to personal and economic independence, mom, fear to dad) advancing in a career, and learning to ​ Electra Complex (girl attracted to dad) live with that person in an intimate way, d.​ Latency Stage (6 to puberty). starting a family, and rearing children. -​ During this stage, sexual urges remain 8.​ Middle adulthood is a time of expanding repressed. The children’s focus is the personal and social involvement and acquisition of physical and academic responsibility; of assisting the next skills. Boys usually relate more with generation in becoming competent, boys and girls with girls. mature individuals; and of reaching and e.​ Genital Stage (puberty onwards) maintaining satisfaction in a career. -​ Adolescents focus their sexual urges 9.​ Late adulthood is a time of life review, towards the opposite sex peers, with the retirement, and adjustment to new social pleasure centered on the genitals. roles and diminishing strength and health. [3 Components Of Personality] -​ Ego, Id, & Superego [Significance Of Age] 1.​ Chronological age – the number of [Topographical Iceberg Model] years that have elapsed since birth. ​ Unconscious (not available to us at a 2.​ Biological age - the person’s age in conscious level) terms of biological health. ​ Consciousness (we are aware of is 3.​ Psychological age – an individual’s stored in our conscious mind.) adaptive capacities compared with those ​ Subconscious (This is the part of us of other individuals of the same that we can reach if prompted, but is not chronological age. in our active conscious) 4.​ Social age – refers to connectedness with others and the social roles [PSYCHOANALYSIS] individuals adopt. -​ a therapeutic approach which aims to treat mental disorders by investigating [Issues In Dev Psych] the interaction of conscious and 1.​ Nature and Nurture unconscious elements 2.​ Stability and Change (persist or not) 3.​ Continuity or Discontinuity (gradual or thru stages)​ JEAN PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE cause-and-effect relationship. (Ex. If A DEVELOPMENT causes B, then B causes A.) -​ He called his framework “genetic epistemo-logy” because he was c.​ Concrete-Operational Stage (8-11 yrs) interested in how knowledge developed -​ characterized by the ability of the child in human organisms. to think logically but only in terms of Concepts : concrete objects. 1.​ Schema – refers to the cognitive -​ Mathematical operations develop. structures by which individuals ​ Decentering (the ability of the child to intellectually adapt to and organize their perceive the different features of objects environment. and situations.) 2.​ Assimilation – the process of fitting a ​ Reversibility (the child can now follow new experience into an existing or that certain operations can be done in previously created cognitive structure or reverse) schema. ​ Conservation (the ability to know that 3.​ Accommodation – the process of certain properties of objects do not creating a new schema. change even if there is a change in 4.​ Equilibration – means achieving proper appearance.)​ balance between assimilation and Seriation (the ability to order or arrange accommodation. things in a series based on one 5.​ Cognitive disequilibrium – a dimension such as weight, volume or discrepancy between what is perceived size.) and what is understood. a.​ Formal Operational Stage (12 to 15 yrs). [COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT] -​ Thinking becomes more logical. They -​ involves a continuous effort to adapt to can now solve abstract problems and the environment in terms of assimilation can hypothesize. and accommodation -​ scientific reasoning is possible.​ a.​ Sensori-motor Stage (birth to infancy). ​ Hypothetical reasoning (the ability to -​ The child becomes more organized in come up with different hypotheses and his movement and activity. to gather and weight data in order to -​ Senses and motor skills make a final decision or judgment.) ​ Object Permanence (ability of the child ​ Analogical reasoning (the ability to to know that an object still exists even perceive the relationship in one instance when out of sight) and then use that relationship to narrow b.​ Pre-Operational Stage (2 to 7 yrs.) down possible answers in another -​ Intelligence at this stage is intuitive in similar situation or problem.) nature. The child can now make mental ​ Deductive reasoning (the ability to representations, is able to pretend, and is think logically by applying a general closer to using symbols rule to a particular instance or situation.) -​ Development in language ​ Symbolic Function [Findings In Piaget Theory] ​ Egocentrism (the tendency of the child 1.​ Children will provide different to only see his point of view and to explanations of reality at different stages assume that everyone also has his same of cognitive development. point of view.) 2.​ Cognitive development is facilitated by ​ Centration (to only focus on one aspect providing activities or situations that of a thing or event and exclude other engage learners and require adaptation. aspects.) 3.​ Learning materials and activities should ​ Irreversibility (the inability to reverse involve the appropriate level of motor or thinking) mental operations for a child of a given ​ Animism ( tendency of children to age. attribute human-like traits or 4.​ Use teaching methods that actively characteristics to inanimate objects.) involve students and present challenges. ​ Transductive reasoning (a child’s tendency to draw conclusions from specific events based on other specific events rather than understanding ERIKSON’S PSYCHO-SOCIAL THEORY -​ The eight (8) developmental stages were 6. Intimacy vs Isolation (young presented. Each stage arises as adult, 18-30 rs) individuals grow and face new -​ to achieve some degree of intimacy, as challenges and turning points in opposed to remaining in isolation. childhood, adolescence and adulthood. -​ The “fear of commitment” is an -​ derived from 2 source words – “psycho” example of immaturity in this stage. relating to the mind, brain, personality, -​ Mala : Promiscuity and others and “social”, to external -​ Mali : Exclusion relationships and environment. -​ Virtue : Love -​ it is useful for teaching, parenting, 7. Generativity vs Stagnation self-awareness, self-understanding, and (Middle Adulthood) others. -​ to cultivate the proper balance of -​ Involves psychosocial crisis of two generativity and stagnation. opposing emotional forces -​ Generativity is an extension of love for ○​ Malignancy : too negative the next generation and all future ○​ Maladaptation : too positive generations. -​ Stagnation is self-absorption or caring 1.​ Trust vs Mistrust (infancy) for no-one. -​ to develop trust without completely -​ Midlife Crisis eliminating the capacity for mistrust. -​ Mala : Overextension -​ Mala : sensory maladjustment -​ Mali : Rejectivity -​ Mali : withdrawal -​ Virtue : Caring -​ Virtue : hope 8. Integrity vs Despair (Old age) 2.​ Autonomy vs Shame/Doubt -​ Ego integrity means coming to terms (18months to 3-4 yrs) with your life, and thereby coming to -​ to achieve a degree of autonomy while terms with the end of life. minimizing shame and doubt -​ Mala : Presumption -​ Mala : impulsiveness -​ Mali : Disdain -​ Mali : Compulsiveness -​ Vitrue : Wisdom -​ Virtue : Willpower or Determination 3.​ Initiative vs Guilt (early childhood 3-6 LAWRENCE KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF yrs) MORAL DEVELOPMENT -​ to learn initiative without too much -​ The development of moral reasoning guilt. -​ based his theory on the findings of -​ Mala : Ruthlessness Piaget -​ Mali : Inhibition -​ Explain how children develop a sense of -​ Virtue : Courage right and wrong. 4.​ Industry vs Inferiority (School Age LEVEL 1 : Preconventional Morality 6-12 yrs) -​ Moral reasoning is based on the -​ to develop a capacity for industry while consequence/result of the act avoiding an excessive sense of a.​ Stage 1 : Punishment or Obedience inferiority. (One is motivated by fear of -​ Children must “tame the imagination” punishment.) and dedicate themselves to education b.​ Stage 2 : Mutual Benefit -​ Mala : Narrow VIrtuosity (One is motivated to act by the benefit -​ Mali : Inertia that one may obtain later) -​ Virtue: Competency 5.​ Identity vs Role Confusion LEVEL 2 : Conventional Morality (Adolescence) -​ Moral reasoning is based on the -​ Ego identity means knowing who you conventions or “norms” of society. This are and how you fit into the rest of may include approval of others, law and society. order. a.​ Have a mainstream adult or role model a.​ Stage 3 : Social Approval b.​ Society should provide rites of passage (One is motivated by what others expect -​ Fail to it, suffer from identity crisis in behavior – good boy, good girl.) -​ Mala : Fanaticism b.​ Stage 4 : Law and Order -​ Mali : Repudiation (One is motivated to act in order to -​ Virtue : Fidelity uphold law and order.)  [Four Levels of Scaffolding] LEVEL 3 : POST CONVENTIONAL 1.​ I Do, You Watch. MORALITY 2.​ I Do, You Help. -​ Moral reasoning is based on enduring or 3.​ You Do, I Help. consistent principles. 4.​ You Do, I Watch. a.​ Stage 5 : Social Contract (Laws that are wrong can be changed. [Ideas] One Will Act Based On Social Justice 1.​ His theory focuses on the role of culture And The Common Good.) in the development of mental abilities, b.​ Stage 6 : University Principle like speech and reasoning in children. (This Is Associated With The 2.​ He viewed cognitive development as a Development Of One’s Conscience.) social process where children learn from experienced adults. 5. Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory 3.​ Adults in society foster children’s -​ Social Interaction And Language cognitive development by engaging Plays A Very Important Role In them in challenging and meaningful Cognitive Development activities. -​ Scaffolding Is His Term For The Appropriate Assistance Given By The BRONFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL Teacher To Assist The Learner THEORY Accomplish A Task.​ -​ Also known as Bioecological Systems [Difference Between Piaget And Vygotsky] theory, Piaget -​ This presents child development within -​ More Individual In Focus. the context of relationship systems that -​ Believed That There Are Universal comprise the child’s environment. Stages Of Cognitive Development. -​ describes multipart layers of the -​ Did Not Give Much Emphasis On environment that have an effect on the Language development of the child. Vygotsky -​ More Social In Focus A.​ Microsystem -​ Did Not Propose Stages But Emphasis -​ the layer nearest the child that comprises Is On Cultural Factors In Cognitive structures (family, school and Development neighborhood) which he directly -​ Stressed The Role Of Language In interacts with. Cognitive Development -​ Most basic relationship in environment ​ Bi- Directional Influences : [Cultural Factors] 2 dimensions that says the child is -​ Vygotsky Looked Into The Wide Range affected by people and that people are Of Experiences That A Culture Would also affected by the child Give To A Child. B.​ Mesosystem [Language] -​ serves as the connection between the -​ Learners Can Use Language To Know structures of the child’s microsystem. And Understand The World And Solve C.​ Exosystem Problems. -​ the bigger social system in which the -​ Private Speech Is A Form Of Self-Talk child does not function directly. That Guides The Child’s Thinking And (government, media or workplace) Action. -​ The structures in this layer may influence the child’s development by Zone Of Actual Development somehow affecting some structure in the -​ Refers To The Level Of Competency child’s microsystem. (Ex. parents’ Achieved By A Child As He Performs A schedule or location of work) Task Alone. D.​ Macrosystem -​ found in the outermost part of the child’s Zone Of Proximal Development environment. This includes the cultural -​ The Difference Between What The values, customs, and laws. Child Can Accomplish Alone And What -​ The belief system contained in one’s He/She Can Accomplish With The macrosystem permeates all the Guidance Of A More Knowledgeable interactions in the other layers and Other (Mko). reaches the individual. (Ex. Sons are  more valuable than daughters in some [Ultrasound Sonography & Etc] countries like China.) -​ used to determine whether a fetus is E.​ Chronosystem developing normally. -​ covers the element of time as it relates to a child’s environment. BEHAVIOR GENETICS -​ “patterns of stability and change” -​ field concerned with the influence of -​ Is the child’s day characterized by an heredity and environment on individual orderly predictable pattern, or is he differences in human traits and subjected to sudden change in routine. ​ development. -​ (e.g. Twin and adoption studies) CHAPTER 3: Prenatal Development [BG Methods] a.​ Twin Studies BIOLOGICAL DETERMINANTS OF -​ comparing identical and fraternal twins BEHAVIOR to assess the role of genetics and [Natural Selection] environment in behavioral differences. -​ process by which those individuals of a b.​ Adoption Studies species that are best adapted survive and -​ examining similarities between adopted reproduce. children and their biological versus -​ In evolutionary theory, adaptive adoptive parents to isolate genetic and behavior is behavior that promotes the environmental influences. organism’s survival in a natural habitat. c.​ Family Studies – analyzing behavioral [Evolutionary Psychology] traits across family members to -​ adaptation, reproduction, and “survival determine the influence of shared genes of the fittest” are important in shaping and environments. behavior. d.​ Molecular Genetic Methods – -​ view that an extended childhood period identifying specific genes that affect is needed to develop a large brain and behavioral dimensions, such as learn the complexity of human social personality and intelligence and communities. disorders, such as autism, hyperactivity, [Genes] depression and schizophrenia. -​ Genes act collaboratively, not independently. HEREDITY-ENVIRONMENT -​ units of hereditary information that help CORRELATIONS cells to reproduce and manufacture [Scarr’s Heredity-Environment Correlation] proteins. -​ describes three genotype-environment -​ are passed on to new cells when correlations: chromosomes are duplicated during the 1.​ Passive 2 way processes : mitosis and meiosis, 2.​ Evocative in which new cells are formed. 3.​ Active (niche picking) -​ Variability happened : exchange of [Epigenetic View] chromosomal segments during meiosis, -​ emphasizes that development is the through mutations, and through result of an ongoing, bidirectional environmental influences. interchange between heredity and environment. [Genetic Principle] -​ Gene X Environment interaction 1.​ dominant-recessive genes 2.​ sex-linked genes STAGES OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT 3.​ polygenic inheritance 1.​ Germinal period – takes place in the first 2 weeks after conception. This [Chromosomal Abnormalities] includes the creation of the zygote, 1.​ Down syndrome- caused by the continued cell division, and the presence of an extra copy of attachment of the zygote to the uterine chromosome 21. wall. 2.​ Klinefelter syndrome 2.​ Embryonic period – occurs 2 to 8 3.​ fragile X syndrome, weeks after conception. During this 4.​ Turner syndrome, period, the rate of cell differentiation 5.​ XYY syndrome. intensifies, the support system for the cells form, and organs appear.  3.​ Fetal period – begins 2 months after FACTORS AFFECTING PRENATAL conception and lasts for 7 months, on DEVELOPMENT the average. Growth and development ​ Teratology continue their dramatic course during the field of study that investigates the this time. causes of congenital (birth) defects. ​ Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders [3 Layers Of Cells] cluster of abnormalities that appear in a.​ Endoderm – the inner layer of cells offspring of mothers who drink heavily which will develop into the digestive during pregnancy. and respiratory systems. ​ Other parental factors that affect b.​ Ectoderm – the outermost layer which prenatal development include maternal will become the nervous system, diet and nutrition, age, emotional states sensory receptors and skin parts (like and stress, and paternal factors. hair and nails). ​ Maternal age can negatively affect the c.​ Mesoderm – the middle layer which offspring’s development if the mother is will become the circulatory system, an adolescent or over 35. bones, muscles, excretory and ​ High stress in the mother is linked with reproductive systems. less than optimal prenatal and birth outcomes. ORGANOGENESIS : the process of organ formation during the first 2 months of prenatal CHILDBIRTH development 1.​ The first stage, which lasts about 6 to 12 hours for a woman having her first Life-support systems for the embryo develop child, is the longest stage. The cervix rapidly. These include the ff: dilates to about 10 centimeters (4 a.​ amnion – contains a clear fluid in which inches) by the end of the first stage the developing embryo floats. 2.​ The second stage begins when the b.​ umbilical cord – connects the baby to baby’s head starts to move through the the placenta. cervix and ends with the baby’s c.​ placenta – consists of a disk-shaped complete emergence. group of tissues in which small blood 3.​ The third stage involves the delivery of vessels from the mother and the the placenta after birth. Childbirth offspring intertwine but do not join. strategies involve the childbirth setting and attendants. THE BRAIN [Midwifery] -​ By the time babies are born, they have -​ In many countries, a doula attends a approximately 100 billion neurons, or childbearing woman. nerve cells. -​ Methods of delivery include medicated, -​ The basic architecture of the brain is natural or prepared, and cesarean. formed in the first two trimesters of prenatal development. Neonatal Intensive Care Unit Network Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS) was created to [Neurogenesis] assess at-risk infants. -​ term for the formation of new neurons. -​ Low birth weight infants weigh less than -​ The nervous system begins with the 5 pounds 8 ounces​ formation of a neural tube at 18 to 24 days after conception. [Postpartum Period] -​ Proliferation and MIgration (2 process -​ The period after childbirth or delivery. It that characterized brain development) lasts for about six weeks or until the [Gestation] woman’s body has completed its -​ period of time between conception and adjustment. birth when a baby grows and develops inside the mother's womb. -​ gestational age is measured from the first day of the mother's last menstrual cycle to the current date. It is measured in weeks.