PSYC39 LEC Notes (Wk 10-12) PDF

Week 10 (Psychopathy and Intimate Partner Violence) Psychopathy considered personality disorder enduring patterns of thinking, feeling and behaving that are maladaptive and unacceptable in one’s culture People who score high on psychopathy are manipulative, lack empathy, impulsive...

Week 10 (Psychopathy and Intimate Partner Violence) Psychopathy considered personality disorder enduring patterns of thinking, feeling and behaving that are maladaptive and unacceptable in one’s culture People who score high on psychopathy are manipulative, lack empathy, impulsive and perform anti-social behaviors intraspecies predators Psychopathy and Law enforcement O’toole: Psychopathy can be described as one of law enforcement’s greatest challenge Psychopaths come into contact with police ○ can be lethal ○ half of cop killers are psychopaths difficult to interrogate ○ Typical minimization tactics aren’t effective; instead, appealing to their sense of grandiosity and desire for status might be more effective Psychopathy: Assessment Hare’s Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (Hare, 1991, 2002)  20-item scale, semi-structured interview + review of file information Each item is scored from 2 (definitely applies), 1 (applies to some extent), and 0 (does not apply); total score ranges from 0 to 40. ○ Psychopaths > 30 ○ Many non-psychopathic offenders have scores around 22 ○ People with no criminal background normally score around 5 PCL-R (Hare and Newman) 4 factors Interpersonal ○ Glibness/superficial charm ○ Grandiose sense of self-worth ○ Pathological lying ○ Conning/manipulative Lifestyle ○ Need of stimulation/proneness to boredom ○ Parasitic lifestyle ○ Lack of realistic, long-term plans ○ Impulsivity ○ Irresponsibility Affective ○ Lack of remorse or guilt ○ Emotionally shallow ○ Callous/lack of empathy ○ Failure to accept responsibility Antisocial ○ Poor behavioral control ○ Early behavioral problems ○ Revocation of conditional release ○ Criminal versatility Promiscuous sexual behavior and many short-term relationships aren’t differentiated among the factors Self-report Psychopathy Scale designed to match the factor-structure of the PCL-R interpersonal manipulation — interpersonal factors Criminal tendencies — antisocial factor Erratic Lifestyle — Life Style Factor Callous Affect — Affective factor Subclinical Psychopaths Trait exist on a continuum self-report are useful for research in non-forensic samples Psychopaths may not have insights about themselves clinical psychopathy — real forensic psychology subclinical psychopathy — may have psychopathic traits, but less severe antisocial behaviors How Prevalent (widespread) is Psychopathy Self-report suggests — 1% DSM-5 studies — APD ranges between 0.2% to 3.3% prevalence increases with lower SES females usually score lower than males Response Modulation Deficit Theory Psychopaths fail to use contextual cues that are peripheral to a dominant response set to modulate their behavior Do not pay attention to cues that would inhibit behaviors Fail to learn to avoid punishment (do not inhibit behaviors) may repeat the same unaccepted behavior Affective Theory of Psychopathy Psychopaths have a deficit in the experience of certain critical emotions that guide prosocial behavior (callous) Lexical-decision task - non-psychopaths identified emotional words faster ○ psychopaths did not show this for emotional words the amygdala regulates emotional behavior ○ maybe dysfunction can explain psychopaths Evolutionary Perspectives humans are social species tendency for cooperation — reciprocity is one of them psychopaths is an evolved strategy that exploits the reciprocity of others humans are hierarchical — higher status means access to resources ○ psychopathy — status striving strategy ○ higher status means more access to resources ○ psychopathy can be seen as a striving for status and hierarchy strategy Psychopathy Vs. Sociopathy sociopathy — assumes that someone’s psychopathy is caused by environmental factors ○ makes assumptions that may or may not be correct  ○ the person acquired these traits over development ○ humanistic theory: the assumption that people are basically good but that negative experiences can make them behave in “bad” ways; OR ○ A radical behaviorist point of view (i.e., Conditioning) “people are blank slates” Nature vs. Nurture Behavioral Genetics: the study of genetic and environmental influences on behavior Heritability: the contribution of genetics to the variation of a trait observed in a population behavioral genetic research suggests that psychopathic traits are substantially heritable Does Family Matter best research method to determine whether family experiences are related to development of psychopathy is to do a prospective longitudinal study following young children over time and measure family variable along with psychopathic traits Weiler and Widom (1996) followed 900 children who had been abused or neglected before age 11 and compared them to a sample matched on age, race, gender, school, place of residence ○ After 20 years, psychopathy was measured with the PCL-R ○ Children who had been abused had higher PCL-R scores There has to be genetically informed longitudinal study because parents and kids share genes and these genes may be associated with psychopathy Psychopaths are difficult to interrogate try to outwit the interrogator enjoy being the focus of attention Attempt to control the interrogation Aren’t easily fooled by bluffs (they have lots of experience manipulating people) May try to shock Quayle (2008) suggests: ○ Ensure case familiarity (psychopaths will evade and lie) ○ Convey confidence and authority (interrogators can’t allow psychopaths to control the session) ○ Show liking or admiration (other minimization tactics won’t work) ○ Avoid criticism (they’ll stop the interview or become hostile) ○ Avoid conveying emotions (don’t give away information) Psychopath and Treatment Motivation for Treatment  hare: “suffer little personal distress, see little wrong with their attitudes and behavior, and seek treatment only when it is in their best interest to do so” don’t have personal intention to get treatment difficult to give treatment to those who do not want to be treated Efficacy of Treatment Retrospective Study by Rice et al. (1992) ○ Recognized as the best-known study of treatment outcome in psychopaths ○ “Retrospective study” participant groups already established before the study is finished (N=176) Intensive treatment program on violent psychopathic and non- psychopathic forensic psychiatric patients ○ Forensic patients who spent 2 years in treatment paired with forensic patients who were assessed but untreated ○ Psychopaths - PCL-R scores of >25 or higher ○ Patients followed for 10 years after release Violent recidivism ○ 39% for untreated non-psychopaths ○ 22% for treated non-psychopaths ○ 55% for untreated psychopaths ○ 77% for treated psychopaths ○ the treatment made the psychopaths worse (backfired) A Psychoanalytic Perspective Drs. Stanton Samenow and Samuel Yochelson “the criminal personality” book criminals who undergo therapy learned to better manipulate others more likely to reoffend than those who do not go through therapy Psychopathic Behavior are prolific offenders engage in various types of crime start offending at a younger age — score higher in callous and unemotional traits “Psychopathic violence is more likely to be predatory in nature, motivated by readily identifiable goals, and carried out in a callous, calculated manner without the emotional context that usually characterizes the violence of other offenders” (Hare, 2003, p. 136) Characteristics of Psychopatic Violence Psychopathic violence is more likely to be: ○ Predatory ○ Instrumental ○ Callous  ○ Calculated ○ Not reactive in nature ○ Targeted at strangers Much more likely to commit instrumental homicides Psychopathy and Sexual Violence psychopathy less strongly associated with sexual offending than other violence Other types of Psychopathic Behaviors not all are violent Organizational study by Babiak (2000): ○ psychopaths are skilled at getting information about other employees, spread rumors, cause interpersonal problems at work; they don’t pull their own weight and find ways to blame others Babiak et al. (2010): strategic thinkers, stronger communication skills intimate Partner Violence (Chapter 13) What is intimate Partner Violence Domestic Violence - any violence that occurs in the context of a close relationship ○ in private settings e.g. family members living together ○ in canada, due to social activism there is more attention intimate partner violence - any violence that occurs between intimate partners ○ aka spousal violence or spousal abuse physical abuse - hitting or punching etc sexual abuse - forcing intercourse and other sexual acts financial abuse - restricting access to personal funds emotional abuse - verbal attacks or degradation Psychological abuse - threats or other controlling behavior etc Police Discretion: mandatory Charging Policies since the 1980s there were mandatory charging policies in effect in Canada and the U.S. Police have the ability to lay charges against suspect where there are reasonable and probable grounds to believe domestic assault occurred before this policy, women had to bring charges against their partners, but women were often resistant and fewer charges were laid results suggest that arrests works as a deterrent for men who are employed (lower recidivism rates) but not for those who are unemployed arrests increase court-mandated treatment Myth vs Reality Intimate partner violence is not common ○ difficult to know due to some victims who may be ashamed or embarrassed ○ estimates in canada approx. 1 in 8 women are abused by their partner ○ 15 to 25 (higher rates) at this age you may not know how to cope with adult relationships you may think you are coping with it as best you can when in fact the behavior is not normal When a woman leaves, she is safe ○ homicide occurs after separation Alcohol or drugs cause people to act aggressively ○ is a risk factor but never the only cause ○ Batterers and victims often use it as an excuse Measurement Conflict Tactics Scale and its Revision, the CTS2 is most used instrument self-report has 39 items, 5 subscales respondents indicate how frequently they engage in certain behaviors and how frequently they experience certain acts primarily used to access the prevalence of intimate partner violence and associations of other variables CTS2 Subscales and Items Negotiation Scale Psychological Aggression Physical Assault Secual Coercion Injury Scale Archer’s (2002) Meta-analysis Reviewed 48 cases using CTS Females are more likely to engage in less physical aggression males more likely in severe aggression on campus: males and females engages in equal rates of violence males more to underreport their violence (comparing self- or partner-reports) Related meta-analysis by stockdale et al: Females use verbal aggression (a type of emotional/psychological aggression) more often than males Criticisms of the CTS/CTS2 scales do not assess all potential violent acts scales do not assess motives for violence ○ initiating to violence and responding to violence with violence are treated equally scales do not account for the different consequences of the same act for men and women ○ (e.g. getting punched by a man vs. A woman) Isn’t intimate partner violence always male-initiated? (Another myth) No - Carney: female violence…occurs at the same rate as male violence williams and Frieze: examined 3519 couples ○ two most common types of violence were mutual mild and mutual severe violence LEC ENDED Are police officers “biased” (or more cautious) against men in their response to intimate partner violence brown found that: female injured — male is charged 91% of the time ○ but when male injured — female is charged 60% of the time when no one is injured — female: 13% and male 52% charged Do gay and Lesbian couples show similar patterns of intimate partner violence gay men are more often both perpetrators and victims  lesbian couples tend to socially isolate themselves which is troubling because social isolation predicts increased physical abuse Findings from the General Social Survey included a modified version of the CTS N = 33,127 (15 years of age and older) respondents asked about their experiences within the last 12 months and past 5 years results: 1% of men and women reported experiencing physical or sexual assault in the last 12 months ○ 4% of men and women reported experiencing physical or sexual assult in the last 5 years Gender ○ women report experiencing more severe forms of violence than men e.g. 34% of women vs 16% of men report being beaten, choked or sexually assaulted by their partners ○ women more to get injired ○ only 19% of violence reported to police: violence against women are more likely to be reported; most common reason for not reporting — victims felt it was a personal matter Historical Risk Factor ○ 50% of victims report childhood physical or sexual abuse ○ Why? ○ Static risk factor since it is in the pas (something that cannot be changed) Sexual Orientation ○ Lesbian and bisexual women were 4x more likely to report violence than heterosexual women ○ They are more likely to isolate themselves Indigenous Populations ○ more than 2x the amount of intimate partner violence than non-indigenous respondents over last 5 years ○ indigenous respondents reported experiencing and witnessing more abuse as children study: Akers and Kaukinen (2009): Indigenous women are more likely to contact the police than non-Indigenous, non-minority women. ○ Despite relying on law enforcement more, Indigenous women still experience a higher incidence of intimate partner violence ○ More research is needed to understand how law enforcement can better help. Some possibilities: Complex legal jurisdictional challenges → Who takes the case? Feds, Province, or First Nation Police?  Lack of comprehensive support services Some Criteria for Evaluating Theory in Psychology Comprehensiveness → how much does the theory explain? Parsimony - how simple are the theory’s explanations? ○ We may assume the superiority ceteris paribus of the demonstration which derives from fewer postulates or hypotheses Falsifiability - can the theory be tested? ○ E.g. Psychoanalysis is often criticized because any adult behavior can be interpreted as evidence of deeply repressed early experiences but since these experiences are deeply repressed and unconscious, they’re difficult to examine ○ E.g. many postmodern theories argue that all social phenomena are constructed and that “reality” varies from person to person against which their claim could be measured Evidence - does the empirical evidence support the theory’s hypotheses? Practical value - can the theory be applied to solve problems? ○ What good is the theory if it cannot solve real problems Patriarchy cultural beliefs and values that support male dominance of woman ○ e.g. taliban’s oppression of women and girls; Pre- and post-revolution in Iran Cannot explain all aspects of intimate violence ○ e.g. Female-initiated violence Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura) Booboo doll - violence is learned Origins - observational learning ○ family of origin, their subculture and TV ○ evidence: male batterers are more likely to have witnessed parental violence than nonviolence Instigator - events that act as a stimulus for an acquired behavior ○ aversive Instigator: produce emotional arousal ○ incentive intigator: percieved rewards; perception that aggression can satisfy needs ○ Evidence: male batterers tend to label different emotional states as anger Regulators - consequences of behavior ○ external punishment: e.g. getting arrested ○ self-punishment: e.g. feeling remorse ○ if rewards outweigh regulators (an alternatives are not available for coping with instigators), the likelihood of violence increases  If the reward is higher than the punishment then the behavior is more likele If the punishment is higher than the reward then the behavior is less likely Evolutionary Psychology Selective pressures of losing access to resources in relationships (e.g. sex) events that threaten access to resources (e.g. sexual competitors) resulted in evolved strategies that work to maintain and protect relatiohsip resources ○ Intimate partner violence may be one such strategy (explains why it’s widespread) ○ E.g., Emotional abuse → makes partner feel that can’t be loved by anyone else, discouraging them to leave ○ E.g., Physical abuse and threats of violence → prevent partner from showing interest in other potential mates The primary goal of an organism is to pass on its genes to the next generation. This leads to behaviors that ensure the retention of a mate Jealousy and Possessiveness ○ Emotions like jealousy and possessiveness have evolved because they served a functional purpose in our ancestral past ○ Particularly males who have possessiveness ○ Maybe IPV is an exaggerated extreme form Makes specific, contextual predictions Intimate partner violence should be more likely when: ○ There is sexual infidelity (perceived to be higher or actual) ○ One partner is much more attractive than the other ○ In families involving stepchildren (paternal uncertainty) Typologies of Male Batterers Categories based on severity of violence, generality of violence and personalidy disorder characteristics 3 categories ○ family-only batterer (approx. 50%) Not generally violent or criminal; no psychopathology; attitudes don’t support violence ○ Dysphoric/borderline batterer (approx 25%) Depression and borderline (emotionally unstable) traits ○ Generally violent/antisocial batterer (about 25%) Impulse control problems; violent and criminal outside the home Anit-social offenders Family-only Batterers  Engages in least amount of violence ○ not violent outside gome does not engage in other criminal behavior does not show much psychopathology does not have attitudes supportive of violence Dysphoric/Borderline Batterer Engages in moderate to severe violence Exhibits extra-familial violence and criminal behavior displays the most depression and borderline personality traits moderate impulsivity problems and drug/alcohol abuse Generally violent/antisocial Batterer engages in moderate to severe violence engages in violence outside of the home and criminal behavior has antisocial and narcissistic personality features ○ alcohol and drug problems ○ high levels of impulse control problems Typology of Battered Women Level 1 - Short-Term ○ Mild to moderate levels of abuse resulting in few injuries ○ Leave the relationship after one to three abusive experiences Level 2 - Intermediate ○ Experience 3 to 15 incidents of violence ○ Initially mild violence that escalates (broken bones, stiches, etc.) ○ Leave relationship after a severe abusive incident Level 3 - Intermittent Long-Term ○ Experience 4 to 30 incidents of severe violence ○ Stay in the relationship until the children leave home Level 4 - Chronic ○ Experience several hundred incidents of severe violence. ○ Abuse ends when the husband is arrested, hospitalized, or dies Level 5 - Homicidal ○ Experience life-threatening injuries and explicit death threats ○ Relationship ends when the woman kills her batterer Why do Battered Women Stay? Myths  Ewing and Aubrey (1987) gave people a hypothetical scenario about a couple with marital problems, including intimate partner violence ○ Husband assaulted his wife (accused her of cheating), threw her to the floor Respondents asked to rate their agreement with some statements other The decision to stay, leave, or return to an abusive partner is complex. Walker (1979) proposed a 3-stage cycle of abuse ○ Tension-building - interpersonal tension, poor communication, victim is fearful ○ Acting-out - violent, abusive incident ○ Honeymoon - abuser apologizes, affection returns Critique: Intimate partner violence isn’t so predictable Learned Helplessness (Seligman) ○ Battered women just “give up” Critiques ○ Battered women may behave passively on purpose in order to appease their abuser ○ Many women do attempt to leave Violence Against Women Survey (Johnson, 1996) 42% of battered women left their abusive husbands for a short time or permanently ○ Primary reasons: fear of increasing severity, having their children witness the violence, reporting violence to police 70% of women returned home at least once ○ Primary reasons: for the sake of the children (31%), to give the relationship another chance (24%), the husband promised to change (17%), lack of money or a place to go (9%) Kim and Gray (2008) Explored the predictors of a woman’s decision to stay or leave after being abused; N = 452; interviews one week after physical abuse Predictors of leaving: ○ more financial independence ○ less fear of leaving ○ higher self-esteem and internal locus of control One year after leaving: women had more vitality, better mental health, and more relationships ○ But still scored below average on these variables Treating Intimate Partner Violence Duluth Model (Feminist Psychoeducation) Based on the idea that “patriarchy” is the main cause of partner violence Assumes that a battering man believes it’s his right to control his wife/girlfriend  ○ Treatment is focused on challenging this presumed belief Treatment atmosphere is blaming and punitive ○ Tell the male that it is his fault because he is a male High drop-out rate (up to 75%) Criticisms (therapeutic alliance) ○ Focuses on violence done by men to women; neglects woman-to-man and woman-to-woman violence; ○ Views violence as one-sided but violence is often mutual (cannot only be the man that needs to change); ○ Uses shaming—fails to establish therapeutic alliance (cooperative, trusting bond) between client and therapist ○ Violence is multi-dimensional, but the Duluth Model mostly focused on power and control in relationships Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) Violence is learned behavior; violence is reinforced for the offender because he or she obtains victim compliance and reduces feelings of tension. Sees violence as a maladaptive coping strategy; aims to develop alternatives to violence (e.g., anger management and communications skills training) Comparing Approaches Babcock et al. (2004) meta-analysis: Examined the Duluth Model, CBT, and couples therapy on recidivism — only 5% reduction More optimistically, Bennett et al. (2007) found that men who completed treatment were less than half as likely to be re-arrested for intimate partner violence than those who did not finish the intervention Correlational Service of Canada’s Family Violence Prevention Programs Based on Social Learning Theory Teach high-risk offenders how to understand abusive dynamics Identify and replace abusive behaviors with new social skills Includes group sessions Steward et al. (2005): 6-month follow-up of 160 program completers vs. 86 dropouts focus on male offenders who may have been abusive towards female partners What predicts Program Completion? Employment - they have more to lose and they wouldn’t want to lose their jobs so they complete the program ○ Having a routine Age - older Court Mandate - if court mandated you will have to complete the program  treated group did better completing the treatment program matters we know what doesn’t work and we know that completing A program works Mandatory Charging, Redux Arrest rates for intimate partner violence have increased dramatically ○ 1970s and 80s 7% to 15%, these days 30% to 75% ○ Unexpected: Increase in dual arrests. Sometimes difficult to determine primary aggressor — so arrest both Sherman and Beck (1984) experiment: recidivism rate for 314 assault calls over 6 months ○ Separation - suspect leaves premises for 8 hours ○ Mediation - advice to victim arrests lowered mediation and separation rates Week 11 (Human Trafficking) Define Human Trafficking Human trafficking is the recruitment, transportation, harbouring or controlling of persons for the purpose of exploiting those persons through forced labour or the sex industry Force - against someone’s will Fraud - tricking someone into doing something they didn’t consent to Coercion - pressuring someone to do something that they otherwise would not have done Facilitated by a third party - someone making a profit from you doing this thing  Labour trafficking - recruiting, transporting or holding victims to coerce them into doing any kind of work ○ can occur in any industry Sex trafficking - recruiting, transporting or holding victims for the prupose of sexual exploitation ○ exploitation of a person’s vulnerabilities - people who may be separated from their families, desperate for money or shelter, survivors of abuse, etc. ○ form of labour trafficking Prevalence from 2014 to 2020, Toronto Police Human Trafficking Enforcement Team has arrested 308 accused persons, laid 1585 charges, supported 59 underage victims and have had over 250 victim interventions there were 2688 detected victims of police reported human trafficking in Canada between 2011 and 2021 the vast majority (96%) of these victims were women and girls while small proportion (4%) were men and boys True or False Traffickers often build a relationship with the victim prior to exploiting them ○ true Most sex trafficking cases involve international victims ○ False - mostly domestic Most labour trafficking cases involve international victims ○ true Traffickers tend to be creepy old men ○ false - quite similar to age that they are going to traffic boys and men are rarely ever trafficked ○ false traffickers always use physical violence to control the person they are trafficking ○ false - they do not need to use physical to scare someone traffickers always use drugs and alcohol to control the person they are trafficking ○ false - not always used there is no difference between sex work and sex trafficking ○ false - choice, circumstance and coercion ○ sex work is something you want to do (choice + circumstance) ○ sex trafficking is not something you want to do (coercion) if you say yes I will do this work it is not sex trafficking because you made a choice ○ false - there is force fraud and coercion present Stages of Commercial Sexual Exploitation Luring ○ assessing and testing ○ collecting info ○ making them feel special Grooming and gaming ○ all needs are being met ○ promises being made ○ treating to gifts such as rides, new clothes, hair and nails etc Coercion and Manipulation ○ mixed messages ○ sexual acts, compliance is rewarded with drugs/money ○ Confinement and isolation exploitation ○ sense of self broken down ○ can be direct or insidious ○ can't leave because: unknown, fear of violence, trauma bond Recruitment ○ Finding other vulnerable people ○ feels like an opportunity to reclaim power and control Red Flags to Look out for - Sex Trafficking New intimate partner or friend (who may be abusive) that they may be dependent on creates distance/isolated from support system is mistrusting drops usual friends for a new group unexplained access to money and expensive gifts (such as brand name clothes, shoes, rides, hotel stays) spending a lot of time at hotels (hotel parties, hotel pens, receipts, credit card charges, etc) Doing things that are normally outside their comfort zone (i.e. drugs, alcohol, sex, sexting, strip, clubs, etc) someone holding onto their ID or arranges fake ID says they are working as a sex worker for a better future skips school has a significant drop in grades becomes a night owl, stays out late, is unable to sleep at night or sleeps excessively during the day Stages of Commercial Labour Exploitation luring ○ finding vulnerable person and assessing vulnerabilities  ○ understanding gaps and needs and desires grooming and gaming ○ trafficker builds trust with the victim ○ may present themselves as a professional offering a service Coercion and Manipulation ○ threatens to give job away ○ little/no time to read the contract ○ pressured to pay recruitment fees exploitation ○ sense of self broken down ○ can be direct or insidious ○ can't leave because: unknown, fear of violence, trauma bond Recruitment ○ finding other vulnerable people ○ feels like an opportunity to reclaim power and control Red Flags to Look out for - Labour Trafficking appears frightened, withdrawn or confused transported to and from work (possibly with more than one person) does not have suitable clothing or training to do their job work long hours with little or no break is always accompanied by someone when they go out forced to stay in overcrowded accommodations there exists signs of psychological/physical abuse afraid to accept money/any form of payment cannot access their own documentation (ID/Passport) No pay/paid less than minimum wages usually there is no contract for such employment frequently seeking to apply for social benefits Vulnerability Factors For Trafficking individual factors - to the person to themselves ○ low self-esteem/self-worth ○ lack of confidence/insecurity ○ problems with family ○ do not feel adequately loved ○ lack of social support networks ○ Problems at school/bullying ○ previous abuse ○ disability  Systemic factors - third factor (systematic) ○ poverty/low economic opportunities ○ isolated neighbourhood/proximity to crime ○ racism ○ immigration status/language barriers ○ sexism ○ legacy of colonization 2SLGBTQ+ Identity and HT children and youth expreience higher rate of vulnerability to sex trafficking Vulnerable due to family rejection, abandonment or emotional and physical rising from a homophobic or transphobic reactions of guardians if left unaddressed the rates keep increasing Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs self-actualization esteem - being told that I am very proud of you love/belonging safety physiological - emotional and psychological support provided ○ shelter and hotel room Stages of Change Aka transtheoretical model Pre-contemplate - not interested in coming back ○ people have no idea they are being trafficked contemplation - people in this stage still enjoy doing what they do but notice some problems ○ think that they make you do things you don’t want to preparation - when not good things outweigh the good ○ something is seriously wrong Action - they start putting effort to change ○ exit from the situation maintenance - maintaining their action plan ○ staying away from the person relapse - return back to using or slip up (lapse) ○ going back to the person Strengths-Based Approach Goal setting - knowing why client wants to make the change and creationg an actionable plan  strengths assessments - client takes time to identify their strengths environmental resources - hold accountable and build with encouragement connect to community resources alternative methods come first for different situations - create goal- use strengths to achieve them hope inducing relationships - creation of hope when guided by someone positive and encouraging autonomy to make meaningful choices - client has ultimate choice Trauma Informed Approach assumes everyone could have been traumatized (considers what we “do not know”) Recognizes the connections between violence, trauma, negative health outcomes and behaviors Increases safety, control and compassion for people who are seeking services who may have a history of trauma/violence Uses languages and responses that prevents re-traumaization Retraumatization - a conscious or unconscious reminder of past trauma that results in re-experiencing of the initial trauma Can be triggered by a situation, an attitude or expression, or by certain environments that replicate the dynamics (loss of power/control/safety) of the trauma Trauma Informed Practice Week 12 (Homicidal Offenders) What is Homicide When one person kills another person  Different types of homicide have legal definitions (intent) Different types of homicide can be identified by the victim (e.g., filicide) Different types of homicide can be identified by the motive of the perpetrator (e.g., reactive vs. instrumental) In everyday language, “murder” usually means homicide with intent Mexico has the highest rate of homicide and UK has lowest Venezuela has the highest firearms rate and lowest is Canada Homicides represent less than 1% of all violent crimes in Canada (StatsCan, 2015) Homicides and attempted homicides have been declining in Canada since the 90s. In 2014, 83% of solved homicides were committed by someone known to the victim ○ 34% family member; ○ 37% acquaintance In 2014, 23% of Canadian homicide victims were Indigenous; Indigenous homicide rate is 6x higher than the non-Indigenous homicide rate; 32% of people accused of homicide are Indigenous ○ Deeply rooted economic and social issues Infanticide The killing of a newborn child (within the first year of life) by its mother Occurs when the mother’s mind is disturbed due to the effects of childbirth or lactation Maximum of 5 years in prison; No minimum sentence Acknowledges mental disturbance as a mitigating factor postpartum psychosis or postpartum depression Bimodal Classification of Homicide Kingsbury et al. (1997) proposed: Reactive (emotional) ○ Impulsive, unplanned, immediate, driven by negative emotions; occurs in response to some perceived provocation i.e., “classic” manslaughter Predatory (instrumental) ○ Premeditated, calculated, and motivated by some goal (e.g., money, sadistic fantasies) E.g., Mob “hits”; gang violence; Paul Bernardo Daly and Wilson (1992) ○ Reactive homicide more common among relatives ○ Instrumental homicide more common among strangers Miethe and Drass (1999) ○ Coded U.S. study of 34,329 single-victim, single-offender homicides ○ 80% were reactive, 20% were instrumental  ○ Acquaintance victims 55% of homicides; 80% of which were reactive ○ Stranger victims 17% of homicides, 52% of which were reactive ○ Family/intimate victims 28% of homicides; 93% of which were reactive Woodworth and Porter (2002) ○ Used a continuum to code 125 male offenders Purely Reactive, Reactive/Instrumental, Instrumental/Reactive, Purely Instrumental ○ Purely Reactive 12.8% ○ Reactive/Instrumental 23.2% ○ Instrumental/Reactive 20% ○ Purely Instrumental 36% ○ 8% of the sample could not be coded Scores on the PCL-R were positively correlated with instrumentality of homicides Blais et al. (2002) ○ Meta-analysis on psychopathy and violence using a faceted approach ○ 55 samples, N=8,753 ○ Interpersonal features — instrumental violence ○ Antisocial features — reactive violence Types of Homicide by Victim Filicide The killing of children by the biological parents or step-parents Femicide The killing of women ○ Uxoricide The killing of a wife by her husband (“uxor” = wife in Latin) ○ “UK-sor-icide” Androcide — The killing of men ○ Matricide The killing of a husband by his wife Sexual Homicides Killing that involves a sexual component Multiple Murderers Serial killers - The killing of at least two people at different points in time; killings usually committed in different locations Mass murderers - The killing of multiple victims at a single location at a single point in time Spree killers - The killing of two or more victims in extended episode occurring in multiple locations Definitional confusion exists. ○ E.g., Hitmen (mafia contract killers) vs. serial killers? ○ E.g., Joseph Stalin/Mao Zedong/Adolf Hitler vs. Columbine school killers Common Characteristics of Serial Killers  Most are male (92.5% male, 7.5% female) Most are white (51.7%), African-American (40.6%) Most are driven by enjoyment; Aamodt examined 3,688 serial killers and found that 40.1% appear to be driven by enjoyment Most (not all!) meet diagnostic criteria for psychopathy Victims are usually female (53.49%), white (67.33%), and young (average = 19 years old) Shooting most common cause of death (41.73%); strangulation 23.21%) Female serial killers — “black widows” (financial gain) or “angels of death” (nurses who kill their patients) ○ less common Types of Serial Killers Studied 110 case files and proposed the following based on victim characteristics and the method and location of murders. Visionary murderers - Kill in response to voices or visions telling them to kill; delusional or psychotic symptoms ○ e.g. David Berkowitz “son of sam” Also known as the.44 Caliber Killer Terrorized New York, killing 6 people and wounding 7 others Arrested August 10, 1977 Mission-oriented murderers - Targets people that he/she believes is undesirable (e.g., homeless, prostitutes); ideologically driven?? Hedonistic murderers - Kills for gratification ○ Lust - sexual gratification ○ Thrill - fun  ○ Comfort - material or financial gain Power-oriented murderers - Motivated by desire for dominance over victim Chapter 14 (Sexual Offenders) Sexual Assault - any nonconsensual sexual act by either a male or female person to either a male or female person regardless of the relationship between the people involved ○ 3 levels based on severity ○ Level 1 → simple sexual assault (max. Sentence: 10 years) ○ Level 2 → Sexual assualt with weapon or causing bodily harm (max. Sentence: 14 years) ○ Level 3 → aggravated sexual assault (max. Sentence: life imprisonment) after #Metoo movement there was a 25% increase in police reports In 2018 most sexual assaults were classified as Level 1 (98%) ○ Victims were female (87%) ○ Majority under age of 25 (60%) ○ Males were 13% with hald aged 13 or lower In 2016, 2% females experienced sexual assualt who were in Canadian Armed Forces ○ Factors for this were: female, young, single, Indigenous, disabled, LGBTQ+, highly educated, and a junior noncommissioned forces member ○ Explained by: Patriarichal structure, entitlement, alcohol use and cultural acceptance Rape Trauma Syndrome - a group of symptoms or behaviors that are frequent afer-effects of having been raped Effects of rape identified into two phases ○ Acute crisis phase - lasts for a few days to several weeks and symptoms were still severe High levels of fear, anxiety and depression Vitims engage in Self-blame and ask why it happened to them ○ Long-term reactions phase - lasts from a few months to several years Do not significantly recover even after several years Include the development of phobias, such as fear of being left alone or a fear of leaving the house Development of sexual problems and depression Chronic physical health symptoms Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) - as a trauma- and stress-related disorder that may develop as a result of exposure to death, serious injury, sexula violence, whether actual or threatened ○ 4 symptom clusters: avoidance of stimuli, reoccurring distressing memories, a negatively altered cognition and mood, an altered state of arousal and reactivity  Voyeur - someone who obtains sexual gratification by observing unsuspecting people, usually strangers, who are naked, in the process of undressing or engaging in sexual activity Exhibitionist - someone who obtains sexual gratification by exposing their genitals to strangers Rapist - a person who sexually assaults victims over 16 years of age Pedophile - a person whos primary sexual orientation is toward children Child Molester - someone who has actually molested a child Intra-familial chld molester/incest offender - someone who sexually abuses his or her own biological children for whom he or she assumes a parental role, such as a stepfather or live-in boyfriend ○ Aka - incest offenders Extra-familial Child Molester - someone who sexually abuses children who are not related to them Rapist Typology Revised Rapist Typology Version 3 has 5 primary subtypes of rapists based on motivational differeces ○ Opportunistic Type: Commits impulsive sexual assault driven by situational/contextual factors, with no sexual fantasies or gratuitous violence. Often involved in other criminal behavior. Example: A rapist who breaks into a home to steal but rapes the female occupant. ○ Pervasively Angry Type: Has high anger directed at both men and women. These offenders are impulsive, use excessive force, cause serious victim injury, and lack sexual fantasies. ○ Sexual Type: Motivated primarily by sexual preoccupation or sexual fantasies, distinguishing them from other offender types. ○ Sadistic Type: Differentiated from the sexual type by the presence of a sadistic element in the offense, where the offender derives pleasure from inflicting pain or suffering. ○ Vindictive Type: Unlike the pervasively angry type, the vindictive rapist's anger is focused solely on women. These offenders are not impulsive or preoccupied with sexual fantasies; their goal is to demean and degrade the victim. MTC:R4 includes psychopathy dimensions and describes rapists into 3 dimensions: ○ Callous-manipulative, impulsive-antisocial and hypersexual Anger Rapist - a rapist defined by groth, who uses more force than necessary to obtain compliance from the victim who engages in a variety of sexual acts to degrade the victim ○ Higher level of anger towards women ○ Not being motivated primarily by sexual gratification  Power Rapist - A RAPIST WHO SEEKS TO ESTABLISH DOMINANCE AND CONTROL OVER THE VICTIM ○ Amount of force deprends on degree of submission shown by victim ○ Not being motivated primarily by sexual gratification ○ Frequent rape fantasies Sadistic Rapist - a rapsit who obtains sexual gratification by hurting the victim ○ High levels of victim injury including torture and sometimes death ○ Frequent violent sexual fantasies Child Molester Typologies Fixated child molester - a child molester who has a long-standing, exclusive sexual preference for children ○ Have little to no sexual contact with adults ○ Their sexual interest in children begins in adolescece with high recidivism rates ○ Target extra-familial female prepubescent and male pubescent victims ○ Stressor not evident ○ Offences are planned ○ Emotionally immature, have poor social skills and usually single ○ Usually have no history of alcohol or drug abuse Regressed child Molester - a child molester whose primary sexual orientation is toward adults, but whose sexual interests revert to children after a stressful event or because of feelings of inadequacy ○ With Treatment have lower risk of recidivism ○ Their victims are often intra-familial male and female children ○ Their offences are more impulsive ○ They are often married and are having marital problems ○ Related to alcohol use ○ They are likely to feel remorse for their behavior Crossover effect - a sexual offender who engages in one type of sexual offending (an online child abuser) starts engaging in a different type of sexual offending (a contact sexual abuser), or an offender who victimizes children starts victimizing adults too Adolescent, Female and Indigenous Sexual Offenders Adolescent offnders report beig victims fo sexual abuse themselves Sexual abuse against adolescent sexual offenders ranges from 26-90% Other factors: ○ Social inadequacy ○ Lack of intimacy ○ Impulsiveness  Adolescent Sex offenders were likely to have history of sexual abuse, exposure to sex or pornography and atypical sexual interests 2-5% of incarcerated sex offenders are females Sexual reoffending women → 1.5% Sexual reoffending male → 13.5% Female sex offenders recieve shorter sentences ○ 3x more likely to have experience child abuse > any other female offender Underestimation of Female Sexual Abuse (Banning, 1989; Groth, 1979): Women can mask abusive behaviors through caregiving, making them harder to detect. Female offenders are more likely to target their own children, who may be less likely to disclose abuse. Boys are more frequent targets than girls, and boys are less likely to disclose the abuse. Suggested there are 4 types of female sexual offenders: ○ Teacher/lover - offenders initiate sexual abuse of male adolescent whom they relate to as peer. Offender has authority. Victim rarely reports the abuse to police. Offender has most lilely not experienced childhood sexual abuse, but has substance-use problems. Offenders are not aware that behavior is inappropriate. Often describes themselves as being in love. Victims often report they participated voluntarily ○ Male-coerced - offenders are forced into sexual abuse by male who they are in an abusive relationship with. The victim is often female and offender’s own daughter. Offenders are unassertive, have low self-esteem, and are relatively passive partners in the abuse ○ Male-accompanied - offenders engage in sexual abuse with male partner. They are more willing participants than the male coerced type. Victims are both inside and outside the family. ○ Predisposed - offender initiates sexual abuse alone. Has experienced childhood sexual abuse and has been a victim of itimate violence. Reports having deviant sexual fantasies, offenses are more violent and bizarre and involve younger children. Victims are often their own children, they also physically abuse and neglect the victim frequently. Indigenous Sexual Offenders Lack of research 40% of Indigenous offenders in Canada has committed a sexual offence have been found scoring higher on a number of risk factors ○ eg. Have lengthier criminal and substance abuse histories, lower education, and higher rates of unemployment Score higher on dynamic and static risk factor Majority offenders were between 19-40 of age  89% were under influence of alcohol when committing sexual offence less likely to have male victims majority victims are apart of the indigenous community ○ >16% victims were non-indigenous ○ >15% of victims were strangers Theories of Sexual Aggression Finkelhor’s precondition model of child molestation (4 must be met for sexual abuse to occur): ○ Offenders must be motivated to sexually abuse. 3 factors that motivate: emotional congruence - offender’s desire for the child to satisfy an emotional need sexual attraction to the child blockage of emotional outlets for the offender to meet their sexual and emotional needs ○ offender’s lack of internal inhibitions eg. Alcohol and impulse-control problems can weaken the offender’s ability to restrain the behaviors that lead to abuse ○ Offender must overcome external inhibitors for the abuse to occur eg. The offender might need to create opportunities to be alone with the child ○ The offender must overcome the child’s resistance. Offenders will reward child with attention ro bribes ro encourage the child to cooperate some will use threat of harm to intimidate the child Marshall and Barbaree — model of sexual aggression that includes biological factors, childhood experiences, sociocultural influences and situational events ○ males inhibit sexually aggressive behavior via a socialization process that promotes the development of strong, positive attachments ○ offenders fail to acquire effective inhibitory control due to childhood abuse experience or due to being raised in extremely dysfunctional families ○ structure of society the reinforces use of aggression and the acceptance of negative attitudes toward women Ward and Siegert — This model proposes that the situational stressors act as triggers for the sexual offending and vary across pathways. Pathway model with 5 different causal pathways for the development of sexual offending against children ○ intimacy and social skills deficits (impoverished ability to function socially within adult relationships) ○ deviant thought processes (abnormal preference for children) ○ poor emotional regulation (inability to recognize or express emotions) ○ antisocial cognitions (attitudes and beliefs supporting offending)  ○ a multiple dysfunctional pathway that combines the risk factors from the other pathways Treatment of Sexual Offenders Treatments are designed to address: ○ Denial, minimization and cognitive distortions ○ victim empathy ○ enhanced social skills ○ substance-use problems ○ modification of deviant sexual interest ○ development of relapse-prevention plans ○ Self-regulation Denial, minimization and cognitive distortions ○ 70% deny or minimize having ever commit a sexual crime ○ Assessments are done through self-report questionnaires eg. Clarke Sex History Questionnaire Or police victim interviews ○ cognitive distortions are deviant cognitions, values and beliefs that the sexual offender uses to justify deviant behaviors Cognitive distortions in support of sexual offending are more predictive of recidivism ○ Some treatments say there is no point in having people who deny because they would not fully admit to committing a sexual offence and cannot participate in the treatment Empathy ○ Specific deficit in empathy toward victims ○ Empathy is the ability to perceibe others’ perspectives and to recognize and respond in a compassionate way to the feelings of others ○ cognitive distortion can cause empathy problems in sexual offenders because minimize amound of harm they have done ○ mesures have focused on self-report scales such as the Rape Empathy scale and interviews ○ training focuses on getting the offender to understand the impact of the abuse on the victim and the pain caused to develop feelings such as remorse ○ some therapy programs use role-playing, with the offender taking the part of victim ○ only sexual offenders who demonstrate empathy are allowed to take part in the meetings with adult survivors of rape or child sexual abuse Social Skills ○ lack social skills  ○ including self-confidence, capacity for intimacy, assertiveness and dealing with anger ○ Self-report questionnaires, interviews and responses to scenarios to assess social skill deficits ○ treatment programs for sexual offenders vary in terms of which social skill deficits are targeted ○ some focus on anger and communication skills and others on relationships, anger control and self-esteem substance abuse ○ common in nonsexual offenders and sexual offenders ○ sexual offenders use alcohol to facilitate offending ○ self-report to assess ○ often referred to substance use programs ○ programs are based on the relapse-prevention model developed by Marlatt Deviant Sexual interests ○ motivation for some sexual offenders ○ play a role (power and control, anger and desire for emotional intimacy) ○ Assessing deviant sexual interests is the use of penile phallometry a measurement device placed around the penis to measure changes in sexual arousal ○ Aversion Therapy - the pairing of an aversive stimuli with deviant fantasy for the purpose of reducing the attractiveness of these deviant fantasies Relapse Prevention ○ Relapse-prevention - a method of treatment designed to prevent the occurrence of an undesired behavior (eg. sexual assault) ○ offenders are asked to list their emotional and stiuational risk factors that lead to fantisizing about sexual abuse or actualy committing the abuse ○ offenders need to develop plans to deal more appropriately with their problems and ways to avoid or cope with high-risk situations self-regulation ○ focuses on motivation for why they engage in offending and proposes different pathways to offending ○ Good lives model - strength-based approach that focuses on having sexual offenders develop and implement meaningful life plans that are incompatiable with future offending to identify risk factors and strengths of offender and encourages stron therapeutic relationship and that offender can fulfil their needs without harming anyone ○ Those attending GLM reported more positive and future-focused beliefs Effectiveness of Treatment Challenges ○ unethical to carry out ideal control studies treatments were equally effective for adolescent and adult sex offenders both institutional treatment and community treatment were associated with reductions in sexual recidivism Increased the number of risk-need responsivity principles they adhered to programs using cognitive behavioral approach and target dynamic risk factors are most effective  Practice Questions Why can it be inaccurate to relate the concept “learned helplessness” to women who do not leave their abusive partners? - They are not exactly giving up - To us it may seem like it - They are maybe trying to avoid more serious and violent acts - Women do leave so it does not describe their situation