Psyc IN DEPTH PDF

Chapter 11: Motivation & Emotion Motivation: Understanding What Drives Us ​ Definition: Motivation is the internal force that activates, directs, and sustains behavior. ​ Key Idea: It explains why we act the way we do, but varies between people and situations. ○​ Example: One student stu...

Chapter 11: Motivation & Emotion Motivation: Understanding What Drives Us ​ Definition: Motivation is the internal force that activates, directs, and sustains behavior. ​ Key Idea: It explains why we act the way we do, but varies between people and situations. ○​ Example: One student studies to pass an exam, another studies to master the subject. Types of Motivation 1.​ Primary Motives: 🍔 💧 ○​ Biological needs required for survival and growth. 🧥 ○​ Examples: Eating when hungry , drinking water when thirsty , or seeking warmth in the cold. 2.​ Psychological Motives: ○​ Motives not tied directly to survival but essential for personal growth and 🏆 fulfillment. ○​ Example: Desire to excel in a competition or learn a new skill. Theories of Motivation 1.​ Drive Theory (Clark Hull): ○​ Motivation arises from physiological needs (e.g., hunger causes tension). ○​ We act to restore balance (homeostasis). ○​ Example: Feeling cold motivates us to wear a jacket. 2.​ Expectancy Theory: ○​ Motivation depends on expectations of success and the value of the outcome. 🎯 ○​ Example: Studying hard because you believe it will lead to a good grade and a reward. 3.​ Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: ○​ Motivation follows a hierarchy, from basic needs to advanced ones. 1.​ Physiological: Food, water, rest. 2.​ Safety: Security and stability. 3.​ Belonging: Relationships and community. 4.​ Esteem: Achievement and respect. 5.​ Self-Actualization: Fulfilling personal potential. ○​ Example: A person can’t focus on career growth if they are struggling to find food. Achievement Motivation ​ Definition: The desire to accomplish tasks and meet standards of excellence. ​ Key Factors: ○​ Mastery Goals: Focus on learning and improving. ​ Example: Studying math to understand concepts deeply. ○​ Performance Goals: Focus on outperforming others. ​ Example: Competing to win first place in a science fair. What Are Emotions? 🫀 ​ Definition: Emotions are complex reactions involving: 🧠 ○​ Physiological Arousal: Heart racing before a speech. 😊 ○​ Cognitive Appraisal: Thinking, “I’ll never do this again.” ○​ Behavioral Expressions: Nervously pacing or smiling. Basic Emotions ​ Universal emotions (e.g., happiness, sadness, anger) evolved to help us survive. ​ Example: Fear makes us run from danger, and happiness builds social bonds. Theories of Emotion 1.​ James-Lange Theory: ○​ Emotions arise from physical reactions. 🐍💓 ○​ Example: You feel scared because your heart races when you see a snake. 2.​ Cannon-Bard Theory: ○​ Emotions and physical reactions happen simultaneously. 🌠🏃 ○​ Example: You see a meteor explode, feel fear, and decide to run all at once. 3.​ Cognitive Appraisal (Two-Factor Theory): ○​ Emotion comes from interpreting arousal and context. ○​ Example: Feeling joy because you finished a tough exam or nervous because time is running out. Cultural Influences on Emotion ​ Expression Rules: Cultures differ in how emotions are shown. 🌏 ○​ Example: North Americans might openly express embarrassment, while Japanese individuals might mask it. The Role of Emotions 1.​ Motivational Role: Emotions drive actions, like fear leading to escape. 😊 2.​ Social Role: Emotions strengthen or strain relationships. ○​ Example: A smile can bring people together. 3.​ Cognitive Effects: Positive emotions broaden focus, while negative emotions narrow it. Human Development Across the Life Span 1.​ Definition: ○​ Developmental psychology studies changes in physical and psychological functioning over time. ○​ It examines how and why people change from conception to the end of life. ○​ Development: Predictable changes in behavior associated with age. Stage Theories of Development 1.​ Stages: ○​ Abrupt changes (discontinuity) that all children pass through in the same order. ○​ Examples of North American milestones: walking, talking, starting school. 2.​ Continuous vs. Discontinuous Development: ○​ Some argue development unfolds gradually (continuity). ○​ Changes are qualitative (e.g., mastering new skills) rather than just quantitative. Studying Development 1.​ Conceptualizing Development: ○​ Gains (credits) vs. losses (debits). ○​ Focus on normative investigations to establish average norms (e.g., height, weight, literacy). 2.​ Key Age Concepts: ○​ Chronological age: Actual age in years. ○​ Developmental age: Milestones relative to typical stages. Research Methods in Development 1.​ Longitudinal Design:  ○​ Observing the same individuals over time. ○​ Benefits: Tracks long-term changes, avoids societal variations (e.g., generational differences). ○​ Drawbacks: Costly, time-intensive, small sample size. 2.​ Cross-Sectional Design: ○​ Comparing different age groups at one time. ○​ Benefits: Larger sample diversity. ○​ Drawbacks: Confounded by societal variables. 3.​ Sequential Design: ○​ Combines both methods, observing multiple cohorts over time. Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory 1.​ Core Ideas: ○​ Development involves changing mental representations for adaptation. ○​ Cognitive structures, or schemes, help interpret the world. ○​ Processes: ​ Assimilation: Fitting new info into existing schemes. ​ Accommodation: Modifying schemes to incorporate new info. ​ Example: Recognizing a ball vs. apple vs. pumpkin. 2.​ Stages: ○​ Sensorimotor (0-2): Use senses and motion; develop object permanence. ○​ Preoperational (2-7): Develop language, memory, imagination; exhibit egocentrism and centration. ○​ Concrete Operations (7-11): Logical thinking, understanding conservation and reversibility. ○​ Formal Operations (11+): Abstract, hypothetical reasoning. Contemporary Views on Cognition 1.​ Challenges to Piaget: ○​ Baillargeon: Infants show object permanence earlier than Piaget claimed. ○​ Theory of Mind: Understanding others' thoughts and beliefs (e.g., False Belief Task). 2.​ Vygotsky’s Contributions: ○​ Internalization: Learning through social and cultural interactions. ○​ Zone of Proximal Development: Gap between independent ability and potential with guidance. Social Development 1.​ Definition: ○​ Changes in social interactions and expectations over time. ○​ Influenced by culture and environment. 2.​ Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages: ○​ 8 stages involving conflicts/crises across the lifespan. Attachment Theory 1.​ Attachment: ○​ Intense emotional bonds (e.g., to caregivers). ○​ Bowlby: Attachment influences future relationships (internal working model). 2.​ Key Experiments: ○​ Harlow: Contact comfort (monkey studies). ○​ Ainsworth’s Strange Situation: Identified attachment styles: ​ Secure (70%) ​ Insecure-avoidant (20%) ​ Insecure-ambivalent/resistant (10%). Parenting Styles 1.​ Factors: ○​ Demandingness: Level of control or expectations. ○​ Responsiveness: Emotional warmth and support. 2.​ Socialization Goals: ○​ Shaped by cultural norms and child characteristics. Moral Development 1.​ Kohlberg’s Theory: ○​ Moral reasoning evolves through 7 stages, focusing on consequences and intentions. ○​ Principles: ​ Fixed order of stages. ​ Culturally universal stages. ​ Each stage is more complex than the last. Psychological Disorders Overview ​ Mental Disorders in Everyday Life: ○​ 1 in 5 Canadians suffer from a mental disorder; could be underreported (up to 46.4%). ○​ Terms like psychosis, panic attack, and nervous breakdown are used casually, but true "abnormality" differs. What is Abnormal? ​ Defining Abnormal Behavior: 1.​ Distress/Disability: Behavior causing significant life issues (e.g., avoiding social interaction due to fear). 2.​ Maladaptiveness: Actions or thoughts interfering with daily life (e.g., refusing to eat for days). 3.​ Irrationality: Unreasonable beliefs or behaviors (e.g., hearing voices). 4.​ Unpredictability: Erratic actions (e.g., sudden aggressive outbursts). 5.​ Statistical Rarity: Uncommon traits or behaviors (e.g., extremely high IQ). 6.​ Observer Discomfort: Making others uncomfortable (e.g., barking like a dog). 7.​ Moral Deviance: Violating societal norms (e.g., criminal behavior). Etiology of Disorders (Causes) ​ Vulnerability-Stress Model: ○​ Disorders arise from genetic vulnerability (diathesis) triggered by environmental stress (e.g., losing a job, trauma). ○​ Example: A person genetically prone to anxiety may develop a disorder after experiencing a traumatic event. Historical Views ​ Supernatural Theories: Linked disorders to evil or demons; treatments included exorcisms and trephining. ​ Biological Theories: Imbalances in bodily fluids (humors) explained disorders (e.g., excess black bile = depression). ​ Psychological Theories: Freud suggested unconscious conflicts (id, ego, superego) cause mental distress. Classifying Disorders ​ DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual): ○​ Provides a standardized system for diagnosing over 200 disorders. ○​ Evolved from DSM-I (1952) to DSM-5 (2013), which introduced severity ratings and removed the multi-axial system. Anxiety Disorders 1.​ Generalized Anxiety Disorder: ○​ Constant, excessive worry with physical symptoms like muscle tension and fatigue. ○​ Example: Feeling anxious most days for 6 months without clear reason. 2.​ Panic Disorder: ○​ Sudden, intense panic attacks with symptoms like heart palpitations and dizziness. ○​ Example: Fear of dying during an attack. 3.​ Phobias: ○​ Persistent, irrational fear of specific objects or situations. ○​ Example: Avoiding elevators due to fear of being trapped. 4.​ Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): ○​ Obsessions: Unwanted thoughts (e.g., fear of germs). ○​ Compulsions: Repeated behaviors (e.g., excessive handwashing). 5.​ Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): ○​ Re-experiencing trauma through flashbacks or nightmares. ○​ Example: A soldier hearing loud noises and feeling back in combat. Mood Disorders ​ Major Depressive Disorder: Intense sadness, lack of energy, and disinterest in activities. ​ Bipolar Disorder: Alternating episodes of depression and mania (e.g., risky behaviors during mania, extreme sadness afterward). ​ Causes: ○​ Biological: Imbalance in serotonin/norepinephrine. ○​ Cognitive: Negative thoughts about self, world, and future (cognitive triad). ○​ Gender Factors: Women are 2x more likely to experience depression. Somatoform Disorders  ​ Hypochondriasis: Belief in being ill despite medical reassurance. ​ Conversion Disorder: Unexplained loss of sensory or motor function (e.g., sudden blindness without medical cause). Dissociative Disorders ​ Dissociative Amnesia: Forgetting personal info due to trauma. ​ Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID): Presence of multiple identities (e.g., "The Three Faces of Eve"). Schizophrenia ​ Symptoms: ○​ Positive: Hallucinations, delusions. ○​ Negative: Flat emotions, lack of interest. ○​ Cognitive: Disorganized thoughts. ​ Causes: ○​ Biological: Genetic risk, brain abnormalities. ○​ Environmental: Stress or dysfunctional family dynamics. Therapies for Psychological Disorders Definition of Psychotherapy ​ Therapy where trained professionals use methods based on psychological theories and research. ​ Helps individuals with psychological problems. Therapeutic Context Goals of Therapy: 1.​ Reaching a diagnosis of the problem. 2.​ Proposing the cause (etiology). 3.​ Making a prognosis (prediction of the problem’s course). 4.​ Implementing treatment to change thoughts, feelings, and behaviors for recovery. Major Types of Therapies 1.​ Biomedical Therapies: ○​ Focus: Change mechanisms of the central nervous system. 2.​ Psychotherapies: ○​ Focus: Address learned faulty behaviors through thoughts, words, and feedback. ○​ Types: Psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive, humanistic. Therapeutic Settings ​ Types of Therapists: 1.​ Clinical Social Worker 2.​ Pastoral Counselor 3.​ Clinical Psychologist 4.​ Counseling Psychologist 5.​ Psychiatrist 6.​ Psychoanalyst 7.​ Marriage & Family Therapist 8.​ General Practitioner ​ Key Consideration: Empirically proven treatment approaches matter. Therapeutic Alliance:  ​ The mutual relationship between therapist and client, crucial for effective therapy. Psychotherapy Ethics ​ Power Dynamics: Therapists hold power; patients share personal information. ​ Ethical Standards: ○​ Goals must align with client’s interest and societal benefit. ○​ Alternatives to therapy considered. ○​ Work within therapist expertise. ○​ Evaluate treatment effectiveness. ○​ Maintain confidentiality. ○​ Respect all sociocultural factors. Psychodynamic Therapies ​ Assumptions: Problems stem from unconscious conflicts. ​ Primary Goal: Resolve inner conflicts for insight and harmony (Freudian psychoanalysis). Techniques: 1.​ Free Association: Reporting thoughts freely to uncover repressed material (catharsis). 2.​ Resistance: Barriers in discussing topics analyzed for insights. 3.​ Dream Analysis: ○​ Manifest Content: Surface meaning. ○​ Latent Content: Hidden symbolism. 4.​ Transference & Countertransference: ○​ Transference: Emotional projection onto the therapist. ○​ Countertransference: Therapist projecting emotions onto the client. Behavioral Therapies ​ Focus: Observable behaviors and learning processes. ​ Goal: Unlearn maladaptive behaviors and replace with adaptive ones. Techniques: 1.​ Counterconditioning: ○​ Replace maladaptive responses with positive ones.  ○​ Example: Systematic desensitization (gradual exposure to fears). 2.​ Flooding: Intensive exposure to feared stimuli. 3.​ Aversion Therapy: Pair harmful stimuli with negative consequences (e.g., nausea-inducing drugs). 4.​ Contingency Management: ○​ Modify behavior by changing consequences. ○​ Includes positive reinforcement (token economies) and extinction strategies. Cognitive Therapies ​ Focus: Change problematic feelings and behaviors by altering thought patterns. Approaches: 1.​ Beck’s Cognitive Therapy: ○​ Challenge assumptions, evaluate thought accuracy, and explore solutions. 2.​ Ellis’ Rational-Emotive Therapy: ○​ Address irrational beliefs using the ABCD Model (Activating Event, Belief, Consequences, Disputing). 3.​ Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT): ○​ Blend of cognitive restructuring and behavioral reinforcement. Humanistic Therapies ​ Belief: Individuals are in a continual process of self-improvement. ​ Goal: Seek self-actualization and personal growth. Approaches: 1.​ Client-Centered Therapy (Rogers): ○​ Non-directive; builds an atmosphere of unconditional positive regard, empathy, and genuineness. 2.​ Gestalt Therapy (Perls): ○​ Focus on uniting mind and body for self-awareness (empty-chair technique).