PSYCH 306 Research Methods in Psychology PDF

PSYCH 306 Research Methods in Psychology Chapters 1, 2: Introduction, Acquiring Knowledge, and the Scientific Method 1  UPDATES: 1. Meet your Teaching Assistants: Charlotte Caswell Rachael Manning 2. Overflow room available: Room 11...

PSYCH 306 Research Methods in Psychology Chapters 1, 2: Introduction, Acquiring Knowledge, and the Scientific Method 1  UPDATES: 1. Meet your Teaching Assistants: Charlotte Caswell Rachael Manning 2. Overflow room available: Room 11 TA Wenbo Yi will be present Questions will be taken 2 Outline Why study research methods? Sources of knowledge The scientific method The research process APA research reports 3 Why Study Research Methods? 1. To be able to conduct research and evaluate the work of others Research is at the core of Psychology! Results require a full understanding of research methods – To be fully engaged in the field you need to conduct and interpret research properly 4  Why Study Research Methods? 2. To be able to evaluate false claims One America News Network, 2021 5  Science and Pseudoscience How does science differ from pseudoscience? – Testable and refutable hypotheses vs. negative results that are accepted – Objective, unbiased evaluation vs. focusing on examples of successes and ignoring failures – Challenging and adapting theories vs. unchanging theories – Grounded in past findings vs. ignoring past history 6  Why Study Research Methods? 3. To learn to think like a scientist Develop a systematic way of asking questions… …and determine if the findings support the conclusions 7  Why Study Research Methods? The scientific method keeps track of both the hits and the misses “Truth” Example: can dogs smell lung cancer in humans? Cancer Cancer Absent Present = Hit Cancer Absent Dog’s = Miss Behavior Cancer Present Need to show high accuracy for both "Present" and "Absent" cases Guirao Montes (2017) 8 Sources of Knowledge - Make sure to read these sections Non-scientific Approaches: 1. The method of tenacity 2. The method of intuition 3. The method of authority 4. The rational method 5. The method of empiricism 9 Non-Scientific Sources of Knowledge 10  The Scientific Method Minimize errors Uses several methods simultaneously to answer questions in a systematic fashion Examples: behavioral responses, brain scans Systematic examination of a specific issue or question Techniques for acquiring new knowledge and for correcting previous knowledge Knowledge is constantly evolving What is true today may be tested to be false tomorrow https://www.ted.com/talks/stuart_firestein_the_pursuit_of_ignorance 11 The Scientific Method It allows us to make an informed guess, based on the evidence before us We can never say we have “proven” something - Evidence tends to be probabilistic, not all-or-none - There is always more to learn This is both the strength and the vulnerability of the scientific method Not always a definitive answer available 12 Assumptions of Scientific Method The world is orderly and governed by natural laws There are associations between events – Cause and effect relationships We discover the laws of nature through logical thinking Methods help us arrive at an understanding of various cause-effect relationships 13  Steps of the Scientific Method 1 (next Class) 1. Observe behaviour and develop a theory Adjust 5 Hypothesis 2. Form a hypothesis: tentative answer or 2 Psych 305 explanation for a problem 3,4 3. Use your hypothesis to generate a testable prediction 4. Make systematic, planned observations to evaluate prediction 5. Use the observations to support, refute, or adjust the original hypothesis 14 Step 1: Observation Observe a behaviour that leads to a question – Develop a theory Observe dog finds other entrance Question: Are dogs smarter than cats? to house (cat does not) Inductive reasoning: make a generalization based on a few observations. 15  Observations lead to Theories Through observing events, we arrive at an explanation about the cause-and-effect relationship between variables A theory is a statement or series of statements that: - organize our observations and ideas, - explain our observations, and - predict events that are not yet observed. 16  Observations Lead to Theories The role of evidence (3 sources) Observed causes Google searches Media articles of death 1) Observed in the US: Heart Disease causes the greatest death rate 2)Google Searches: Cancer causes the greatest death rate 3)Media Coverage: Terrorism causes the greatest death rate www.ourworldindata.org, 2016 17 Observation  Theory What do previous studies say? Literature Review is important! (next lecture) 18 Conditions for a good scientific theory Parsimony: – Theories gain power when they explain many results with few concepts Precision: – A theory must be precise enough so that different investigators can agree about its predictions Testability: – A theory must make predictions that can be tested empirically (falsifiability) 19  Step 2: Formulating a hypothesis Hypothesis: proposed relationship between variables – Tentative answer or explanation to your question that must be tested and critically evaluated Variable: any characteristic that can change or take different values (amounts) e.g., gender, height, depression scores 20  Hypotheses contain Two Types of Variables Independent Variable (IV): the variable we think is the cause (it does not depend on other variables) – The manipulated variable in experimental studies IV = type of animal (dogs, cats) DV = test of animal cognition Dependent variable: the variable we measure (outcome) It results from the manipulation of the IV (cause) Hypothesis: Dogs will achieve higher scores on cognitive tests than cats 21  Generating Hypothesis A note about IVs and DVs in non-experimental designs: IV / DV terminology is used in experimental methods, where the cause (IV) is manipulated by researcher In nonexperimental research, we cannot imply causality Example: Ice cream sales and violent crime are positively related: when more ice cream sells, violent crime rises. NY Times, 2009 In non-experimental research, there may be another variable causing changes in both variables (hot weather) 22  Experimental Variables Independent variable Dependent variable Temperature Ice cream consumption Example: Increases in temperature will cause higher ice cream consumption Increases in temperature can lead to higher crime rates 23  Step 3: Generating a testable prediction (statement) A specific statement about the expected relationship between variables on a given situation Use rational (logical) method Hypothesis: Dogs will achieve higher scores on cognitive tests than cats Deductive reasoning: begin with a general hypothesis (about all dogs and cats) to make a prediction about a specific situation (the groups in an experiment) 24 Requirements of a good Hypothesis Logical: – Founded in established theories or developed from the results of previous research Testable: – It must be possible to observe and measure all of the variables involved Real situations/events/people Refutable: - It must be possible to get results contrary to the hypothesis Falsifiability: a claim that can be disproven 25  Poor Hypothesis Examples Non-testable or non-falsifiable: Hypothesis: If people could read each other’s minds, there would be more trust in the world. Hypothesis: Prayers send positive energy to influence others, but in ways that cannot be measured or observed. 26 Step 4: Make systematic, planned observations Collect and analyze data – Provide a fair and unbiased empirical test of the hypothesis Evaluate the prediction using direct observation There are many ways to collect data- we will review them this term 27  Step 5: Evaluating the research hypothesis Based on statistics applied to the observations, the hypothesis will be supported, refuted, or adjusted Focus of Psych 305 (Statistics) 28  The Scientific Method Cycle A repeating cycle between theories, hypotheses, and data Continuous process of testing and correcting, based on how data fits predictions 29  Important Principles of Scientific Method 1. It is Empirical Observations are systematic, performed under a specified set of conditions to enable us to accurately answer a research question 2. It is Public The methods used must be available to others Transparency, replication 3. It is Objective Observations and conclusions must be free of bias and personal opinions 30  "Basic" and Applied Research Basic Research: Applied Research: - To understand a type - Address a particular problem of behavior - How sleep affects - What causes sleep disorders to rise coordination in teens at local schools 31  APA Scientific Article Format Abstract Introduction Results Discussion Brief summary Goal of paper, Study Design: Data analysis, Interpretation of article past theories/ Participants statistics that of results relative (~150 words) findings, Materials test hypothesis to past research hypothesis to Design be tested Procedure Additional APA Article sections: References (APA-format bibliographic data matching papers cited in text) Figures, Tables Homework Assignments 3 & 4 feature APA-format scientific articles 32  APA Writing Style General elements of writing style: – Impersonal (objective) style (avoid "we", "I") – Terse (concise) dry style – Use past verb tense – Citations follow APA format (identifies the author(s) and year of publication) Be conservative: select only those studies that are relevant and contribute to your arguments. A general rule: paraphrase a point using your own words instead of a direct quote.  Abstract An abstract (about 200 words) includes: – A one-sentence statement of the problem or research question – A brief description of the participants – A brief description of the research method and procedures – A report of the results – A statement about the conclusions or implications Abstract Body of Paper: Introduction Components: – A general introduction to the topic of the paper – A review of the relevant literature – A statement of the problem or hypothesis of the study with relevant variables clearly defined – A description of the research strategy used to evaluate the hypothesis or to obtain an answer to the research question Excerpts from Introduction Introduction: Relevant Literature Introduction: Method and Hypothesis  Methods Subsections of the Methods section (focus of Psych 306): – Participants – Stimulus Materials & Equipment – Design – Procedure All details of how the research study was conducted (enough information to replicate the study in another lab) Methods: Participants  Methods: Design Design: The independent variables were the Task (Perception or Synchronization) and the auditory rhythm Describe independent Complexity (Simple or Complex). All participants performed in variables all conditions, making this a within-subjects Task (Perception Describe dependent and Synchronization) by Rhythm (Simple vs Complex) variables design. Participants completed the Perception condition first, with Rhythm counterbalanced within each task. Dependent variables for the Perception task were the hit Describe order of rate (% correct detection) and false alarm rate (% conditions, and any incorrect detection) for the omitted tones. The dependent control conditions variables for the Synchronization task were the mean intertap interval (ITI) and the tapping accuracy (participant tap onset time–stimulus tone onset time). Wright & Palmer (2023), PLoS One  Methods: Procedure (this example includes the Materials section)  Results A description of the data and the statistical analyses – Begins immediately after the methods section – Provides a complete and unbiased reporting of the findings, just the facts, with no discussion of the findings Results  Discussion Restates the hypothesis Summarizes the findings Discusses the interpretation and implications Discussion Other Sections: References Listing of complete references for all sources of information cited in the report - Organized alphabetically by the first authors' last name 1-to-1 match between references in text and in reference list: - Any author in the body of the paper should be listed in the References - Any reference listed in the References should appear earlier in the body of the paper References  Tables and Figures Tables and Figures should contain more information than is listed in the text – Each table or figure should be mentioned in the text by number. – The text should describe important aspects of the figure or table. – "Figure 1 shows Montreal snowfall by month relative to Vancouver".  The Peer Review process Most psychology journals send submitted articles to 2-3 reviewers Reviewers must be arms-length (objective, no conflicts of interest with authors) Review process takes 3-6 months before Editor sends authors a decision (reviewers unpaid, have to find time) Most common editorial decision: "revise and resubmit" (same reviewers likely to read 2nd submission). Can also be "accept" or "reject" 2nd review process takes another 3-4 months  The Peer Review process Total time from paper’s submission to acceptance: about one year (can be 2 years if resubmission is to a new journal) Higher-impact journals (Science, Nature): authors encouraged to use them, but they have lower acceptance rates Scientists under pressure to publish (grant funds, awards, and tenure influenced by publications) We will return to these issues in Ethics of scientific publishing  Next Class period: Introduction Methods Goal of paper, past theories/findings, hypothesis to be tested Guest lecture on Literature reviews! Conducting a literature search online Scientific databases available online PsychInfo, MedLine, PsycArticles, ERIC Publication distinctions among scientific journals 53