PSYC 387 Unit 1 PDF

Unit 1 - Chapter 1 Modal action pattern (MAP) - series of related acts found in nearly all members of a species. Resembles reflexes because of their genetic basis and the lack of variability between individuals. MAP are not reflexes because they involve the whole organism not just a few muscles and...

Unit 1 - Chapter 1 Modal action pattern (MAP) - series of related acts found in nearly all members of a species. Resembles reflexes because of their genetic basis and the lack of variability between individuals. MAP are not reflexes because they involve the whole organism not just a few muscles and are more complex. MAP is elicited by events called releasers. For example, ants follow a chemical trail of the ant in front of them which looks thoughtful, however the lead ant tends to lean towards the ant next to it, so they begin to move in a circle. Other examples of MAP are migration and mating rituals. MAP develops through natural selection. Behavior - the way in which one acts or conducts oneself, especially toward others. General behavior trait - Any general behavioral tendency that is strongly influenced by genes. Ex. Anxiety Habituation - A decrease in the intensity or probability of a reflex response resulting from repeated exposure to a stimulus that evokes that response. Learning - A change in behavior due to experience Hybridization- The crossbreeding of closely related species. Ex. a wolf dog Mutation- Any abrupt change in a gene Natural selection – Describes evolution through organisms that better adapted to the environment and have more offsprings as a result. Reflex - A relationship between a specific event and a simple response to that event. The term usually refers to an unconditional reflex. Releaser - Any stimulus that elicits a modal action pattern Stimulus - Any event that affects behavior. 2. Are humans still evolving? How could you prove that they are or are not? Yes, humans are still evolving. Human evolution is shaped through behavior and environment. Natural selection is when behaviors that enhance survival are favored and organisms with these traits have more offspring. As a result, the behavior is passed down through generations, much like how operant conditioning strengthens behaviors through rewards and consequences. Ex. Survival and resiliency of Indigenous people 3. Why has the field mouse not evolved into an animal as large and ferocious as the grizzly bear? Evolution favors traits that are suited to the specific environment and survival strategy of the organism, and for the mouse, being small, fast, and highly reproductive has been far more advantageous. 4. In what sense is natural selection a product of the environment? Natural selection is a product of the environment because the environment determines which traits are beneficial for an organism's survival and reproduction. The environmental conditions, such as climate and food availability create selective pressures that influence which individuals are more likely to survive and reproduce. 5. In what sense is what we learn the product of natural selection? What we learn is the product of natural selection because natural selection favored individuals with the cognitive abilities to adapt to changing environmental pressures. Learning allowed humans to gain critical survival skills, such as finding food and avoiding danger. The organisms who survived natural selection passed down their learnings to the future generations. As a result, learning has been shaped by natural selection. 6. Invent a new reflex, one that would be helpful to humans. A useful new reflex for humans could be the "Alert Reflex"— which would heighten our awareness of potential danger. This reflex would be triggered by environmental cues that signal potential threats such as unusual noises. Upon activation, the body would immediately enhance focus, sharpen hearing, and increase blood flow to the muscles to prepare the individual for quick decision making. 7. Why is natural selection “behind the times”? Is learning behind the times? Natural selection is "behind the times" because it operates slowly over generations and does not quickly address rapid changes in the environment. In contrast, learning is not behind the times because learning allows humans to adapt quickly within their lifetime to new situations. 8. How are reflexes, modal action patterns, and general behavior traits alike? How do they differ? Reflexes, modal action patterns (MAPs), and general behavior traits are similar in that they are all innate, genetically programmed behaviors shaped by evolution to help organisms survive. However, reflexes are simple, automatic responses to specific stimuli, while MAPs are more complex, involving sequences of coordinated behaviors triggered by certain situations. General behavior traits are broader tendencies, like shyness or aggression, and they depend on the context and can be more flexible. Reflexes and MAPs are more rigid, while general behavior traits allow for greater adaptability. 9. Learning is a mechanism for adapting to change. Are the changes ever nonadaptive? Yes, changes can be nonadaptive. Not all learned behaviors can be beneficial. For example, people may learn harmful habits, like smoking. In this case the learning may not be adaptive, especially if it reinforces maladaptive patterns. Therefore, while learning is typically aimed at enhancing survival, not all changes or learned responses are adaptive in every context. 10. Captive animals often behave very differently from animals in the wild. In which circumstance is their true nature revealed? Where should one look to see true human nature? Their true nature is revealed when their survival depends on their natural behavior. For example, when the animal is mating, they may return to their natural mating rituals. Observing humans in natural settings that are less controlled, such as survival settings, can give a glimpse into true human nature. Unit 1 – Chapter 2 ABA reversal design - A type of within-subject experiment in which behavior is observed in the absence of the independent variable (A), in the presence of the independent variable (B), and then again in the absence of the independent variable (A). Sometimes the B condition is restored, thereby creating an ABAB design. Anecdotal evidence – First or secondhand reports of personal experience. Aversive - Any stimulus an animal or person will avoid, so the removal is reinforcing. Baseline period - Observation of behavior before attempting modification Between-subjects experiment - An experimental design in which the independent variable is made to vary across two or more groups of subjects Case study - Detailed study and description of a single case, such as a person who is a compulsive hand washer. Case studies are often used in clinical settings to identify the sources of a disorder and/or its effective treatment. Control group - In a between-subjects experiment, those subjects not exposed to the independent variable Cumulative record - A graphic record of behavior, each point reflects the total number of times a behavior has been performed as of that time. Fluency - A measure of learning consisting of the number of correct responses per minute. The higher the level of fluency, the lower the rate of forgetting. Dependent variable - The variable by which the outcome of an experiment is measured. It is not manipulated by the researcher but is expected to vary with the independent variable. Descriptive study - A study in which the researcher attempts to describe a group by obtaining data from its members. (Surveys or questionnaires) Experiment - A study in which the researcher measures the effects of one or more independent variables on one or more dependent variables. Experimental group - In a between-subjects experiment, those subjects exposed to the independent variable Independent variable - In an experiment, the variable that the researcher manipulates. The independent variable is usually expected to affect the dependent variable. Matched sampling - A procedure for reducing differences among subjects in between-subjects experiments by matching those in the experimental and control groups on specified characteristics, such as age, sex, and weight. Within-subject experiment - A research design in which the independent variable is made to vary at different times for the same subject. Thus, each subject serves as both an experimental and control subject. Topography- specific physical form or shape of a behavior, such as the exact movements or actions involved in performing a particular behavior. 1. What are the principal similarities between within-subject and between-subjects designs? The principal similarity between within-subject and between-subjects designs is that both are experimental research methods used to investigate the effects of variables on behavior. In both designs, researchers aim to control variables and isolate the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable. Both designs compare results across groups to draw conclusions. 3. Distinguish among speed, rate, and latency. speed measures how quickly something is done, rate measures how often it is done each time, and latency measures how long it takes for a response to begin after a stimulus. 4. How could you quantify the changes in topography associated with learning to speak a foreign language? There are multiple factors to quantify changes in topography associated with learning a foreign language, such as tracking improvements in pronunciation accuracy and speech fluency by measuring the reduction in mispronunciations and the increase in smoothness of speech (reducing pauses and hesitations). These physical aspects of speech would show how language use evolves as learners gain more fluency and accuracy. 5. Explain how the rate of behavior is reflected in a cumulative record. The rate of behavior is reflected in a cumulative record by showing the total number of responses over time, with each response being added to the total. The cumulative record is a graphical representation where the y-axis represents the cumulative number of occurrences of a behavior, and the x-axis represents time. In this graph, steeper slopes indicate a higher rate of behavior because the number of responses is increasing more rapidly. A flat line represents periods when no behavior occurs. Therefore, the rate of behavior is directly shown by how steep or flat the cumulative line is. 6. What is the chief virtue of matched sampling? The chief virtue of matched sampling is its ability to control variables by ensuring that the groups being compared are similar in key characteristics. This helps reduce the risk of bias and makes the groups more comparable. 7. In what kind of experiment is statistical analysis least likely to be necessary? Statistical analysis is least likely to be necessary in single-subject experiments where the focus is on observing and measuring the behavior of an individual subject over time. Since there is no need to compare multiple subjects or groups, statistical analysis is often unnecessary. 8. You are studying cocaine addiction in rats. An animal rights activist accuses you of animal cruelty. How can you defend your work? To defend the study of cocaine addiction in rats, emphasize the importance of research for advancing scientific knowledge and improving human health. Studying addiction in animals helps researchers better understand addiction, which can lead to more effective treatments for humans. 9. You are attempting to discover learning principles by studying the effects of experience on the eyeblink. A friend says that eyeblinking is a trivial kind of behavior, not worth studying. Defend your work. Eyeblinking is a valuable behavior for studying learning because it’s easily measurable. Eyeblinking can be easily conditioned, allowing researchers to explore important learning concepts. 10. Some researchers argue that learning is a change in the brain produced by experience. Discuss the virtues and weaknesses of this definition. Defining learning as a "change in the brain produced by experience" has some benefits and drawbacks. It’s useful because it connects learning to brain changes, showing how experience affects brain structure and function. However, it’s limited because it focuses only on brain changes, ignoring other aspects like behavior or cognitive shifts that may not always show immediate brain changes. Additionally, some forms of learning, like social or abstract learning, may not fit neatly into this definition. Overall, while it’s a helpful starting point, this definition doesn’t fully capture the complexity of how learning works.