PSYC 3610 Final Exam Review PDF

PSYC 3610 -- Final Exam Review **Chapter 12: Fading** - Fading: Gradual change over successive trials of an antecedent stimulus that controls a response so that the response eventually occurs to a partially changed or completely new antecedent stimulus. Example: Start with training w...

PSYC 3610 -- Final Exam Review **Chapter 12: Fading** - Fading: Gradual change over successive trials of an antecedent stimulus that controls a response so that the response eventually occurs to a partially changed or completely new antecedent stimulus. Example: Start with training wheels, ending with no training wheels. - Bicycle example: Parent starts by holding the child on the bike and walking beside as the child pedals, parent will still help balance the child on the bike, but with less support and child is pedaling to move the bike forward, then the child is able to bike alone - The gradual change, over successive trials, of... an antecedent stimulus so that... the same response occurs... to a partially or completely new stimulus eg. a dance teacher, using hand pressure to guide the learning of a new dance step, uses less and less pressure until the student can do the step on his own - Fading vs. Shaping: Fading has a constant outcome. Response stays the same in fading where the stimulus stays the same in shaping. - Stimulus Discrimination without Errors Three Advantages: 1. Errors consume valuable time 2. If an error occurs once, it tends to occur many times (even though it is being extinguished) 3. Risk of emotional side effects / attempts to escape from situation - 3 things that make fading more or less successful: Final target stimulus, the starting stimulus (a prompt), and the fading steps - Final target stimulus questions: Will it likely be maintained in a natural environment? Will the learner normally encounter it in their everyday life? - Example of Final Target Stimulus: Peter is unlikely to have people mouth his name after they asked for his name - Study Slide: Final Target Stimulus: After fading, the stimulus that will eventually acquire stimulus control over the target behavior. eg. Veronica quietly asking "What is your name?" with no additional prompting (shouting, saying, mouthing, etc.) - Study Slide: Starting Stimulus: Before fading, the stimulus that reliably evokes the target behavior eg. Veronica quietly asking "What is your name?" and then shouting "Peter! - Four Categories of Teacher-Behavior Prompts: 1. Physical Guidance --- physically assisting the learner 2. Gestures --- pointing or motioning 3. Modeling --- demonstrating the correct behavior 4. Verbal --- using words as cues; giving instructions - The fading steps: Once the "final target" behaviour is occurring reliably to the prompts being given, they should be gradually removed. If errors occur, prompts were faded too quickly. Using too many prompts may cause the learner to become dependent on them. - Shaping is the development of a new operant behaviour by reinforcing successive approximations of that behaviour, and extinction of earlier approximations of that behaviour until the new behaviour occurs. - Study slide: Basic Steps in a Shaping: - Example: Child's name is Steve and we want the child to learn to write his name. Child writes a backward "S", but since it is still an "S", it is rewarded. As time progresses, the backward "S" is no longer rewarded, but the correct "S" is rewarded. This process continues until he can write out his full name. - Study Slide: Shaping Behavior; Five Dimensions: 1. Topography (Form) eg. appropriate fingering for a passage of piano music 2. Amount: Frequency eg. the number of trees planted in an hour 3. Amount: Duration eg. the amount of time engaged in focused studying 4. Latency eg. after the alarm sounds, the time it takes to get out of bed 5. Intensity (Force) eg. the force with which one can strike a nail with a hammer - Aspects of Behaviour that can be shaped: 1. Topography: "form" (physical movements involved) of the response (Example: appropriate fingering for a passage of piano music) 2. Frequency: amount of behaviour (\# of repetitions per unit time) (Example: the number of trees planted in an hour) 3. Duration: time that the behaviour lasts (amount of time behaviour persisted) (Example: the amount of time engaged in focused studying) 4. Latency: Delay between controlling stimulus & behaviour/response (Example: after the alarm sounds, the time it takes to get out of bed) 5. Intensity/Force: how forcefully the behaviour is conducted (Example: the force with which one can strike a nail with a hammer) - Factors influencing effectiveness: 1) specifying the Final Target Behaviour. 2) Choosing the Starting Behaviour. 3) Choosing the Shaping Steps. 4) The pace of movement through shaping steps - Specifying the Final Target Behaviour: Specific, precise definition of the final target behaviour and all relevant dimensions of the behaviour (topography, duration, frequency, etc.) - Choosing a starting behaviour: Because shaping doesn't automatically exhibit the target behaviour, we need to pick an approximation to start with (needs to occur frequently enough to be reinforced and must be an approximation of the final behaviour) - Final target behaviour vs starting behaviour: Final: The final desired behaviour (running for 1 mile a day). Starting: behaviour that occurs once in a while and approximates the final target behaviour (walking around the house once) - Choosing the steps of shaping: Before starting the process, an outline of successive approximations through which you will take the learner is suggested. No real guidelines for the steps, like an art form - Study Slide: Tips for Selecting the Successive Approximations (Steps) in a Shaping Program ---there are no specific guidelines re: ideal step size 1. The teacher can imagine / visualize how they might progress from starting behavior to final target behavior 2. The teacher might observe / seek the advice of individuals who can already emit the target behavior - Pace and movement through steps: How many times should the approximation be reinforced before moving on? Rough guideline: Reinforce approximaton several times before moving on to a new one and don't progress too slowly that new approximations will not occur and if you go too fast, return to an earlier approximation - Study slide: Why Avoid Under-Reinforcement and Over-Reinforcement of Shaping Steps? 1. Under-reinforcement of a step can weaken the behavior, thus making it prone to extinction before the next step can be achieved 2. Over-reinforcement of a step can strengthen the behavior to such a degree that achieving new steps becomes more difficult - Potential pitfalls of shaping: 1. Shaping a behaviour that we didn't mean to 2. Failing to use shaping when we should 3. Lack of contingency between successive approximations and reinforcement (often by rewarding too many behaviours) (Example: dog always waiting by the door for a reward) - Behavioural chaining: a sequence of discriminative stimuli and corresponding responses within which the response JUST MADE essentially becomes the next discriminative stimulus (it triggers the next behaviour) (aka Stimulus-response chain) - Study Slide: Distinguishing Chains and Sequences Behavioural Chain ---stimuli & responses follow each other closely in time ---sequence is consistent; typically followed by reinforcer Behavioural Sequence ---stimuli & responses do not follow each other closely in time ---sequence is not necessarily consistent\-\-- text uses example of taking a course as a sequence, not a chain - Study Slide: Three Chaining Methods Method 1: Total-Task Presentation-- learner attempts every step on each trial until chain is learned-- instructor provides prompts and praise for all un-mastered steps-- a reinforcer is presented after last step of each trial. Method 2: Backward Chaining-- starting with last step, each step must be mastered before proceeding to next-to-last-- instructor provides prompts and praise for the step that is being taught-- each trial requires all previously-mastered steps-- steps are learned one at a time, progressing backward. Method 3: Forward Chaining-- starting with first step, each step must be mastered before proceeding to the next-- instructor provides prompts and praise for the step that is being taught-- each trial requires all previously-mastered steps-- steps are learned one at a time, progressing forward - Study Slide: Why Use T-TP to Teach Persons with Developmental Disabilities?-- at least as good, or better, than FC or BC-- requires less preparation time for instructor-- focuses on teaching response topography and sequence simultaneously, so results are produced more quickly-- appears to maximize learner independence early - Shaping vs Fading vs Chaining - Shaping: rewarding sucesive approximations to a final, desired behaviour. Then, we only reward the originally desired response - Fading: rewarding the final, desired behaviour in the presence of successive approximations to the final discriminative stimulus that will trigger that behaviour - Chaining: rewarding more and more of the stimulus -- response links that form the chain to a final, desired behaviour (in various orders) - Study Slide: Behaviours Typically Taught by Shaping, Fading, and Chaining Shaping:-- new behaviours along some physical dimension, such as amount, topography, or intensity Fading:-- new stimulus control of a particular behaviour Chaining:-- new consistent sequence of stimuli and responses - Pitfalls of chaining: pages 141-142 of textbook **Chapter 15: Punishment** - Punishment: an adverse event that follows a behaviour, such that adverse stimulus decreases the target behaviour's frequency or likelihood (probability) - **Study Slide:** Meaning of "Punishment" For the Lay Person: ---a consequence that is not necessarily immediate ---a form of moral sanction, vengeance, or retribution ---a strategy for deterring engagement in a target behaviour For Behaviour Modifiers: ---the application of an immediate consequence following a behaviour, with the effect that, given similar antecedents, the behaviour will be less likely to occur - **Types of Punishers:** 1. Pain inducing/Physical Punishers (unconditioned punishers because they do not need to be learned that they are uncomfortable) 2. Reprimands using a strong negative verbal stimuli (conditioned punisher because using the word "no, stop that" has likely been paired with a pain-inducing punisher to become effective) 3. Time Outs: exclusionary (standing in the corner) and nonexclusionary (time-out chair) 4. Response Cost (being grounded or taking away computer time, also a negative punishment) - Positive punishment: adding an adverse event following a behaviour, so that it decreases the likelihood of occurring (washing out mouth with soap) - Negative punishment: Removing a specified amount of a reinforcer after performance of an unwanted behaviour (taking away television or computer time) - Study Slide: Extinction, Response Cost, and Exclusionary Timeout Procedures: Extinction:-- a reinforcer for a previously reinforced response is withheld Response Cost:-- immediately following the behaviour, a specified amount of a reinforcer is removed Exclusionary Timout:-- immediately following the behaviour, the individual is temporarily removed from a reinforcing situation - Effects of Punishment: Direct-Acting Effect: ---immediate punishing consequences decrease response frequency eg. a person is less likely to touch a hot stove after being burned for doing so Indirect-Acting Effect: ---delayed punishing consequences decrease response frequency eg. a driver is caught speeding on photo radar, receives a ticket in the mail a week later, and is thus less likely to speed - Study Slide: Distinguishing S , S ∆ , and S DP SD-- a stimulus, in the presence of which, a response is reinforced S ∆-- a stimulus, in the presence of which, a response is not reinforced S DP-- a stimulus, in the presence of which, a response is punished - Study slide: Four Guidelines for Delivering a Punisher 1\. Present the punisher immediately following the behaviour 2\. Present the punisher following every instance of the behaviour 3\. Do not pair the punisher with positive reinforcement 4\. Remain calm while delivering the punisher \- Possible harmful side effects 1\) Aggressive behaviour 2)Emotional behaviour 3\) Escape/avoidance Behaviour 4\) No New/replacement behaviour 5\) modeling 6\) overuse/abuse \- Study Slide: Design Recommendations for Punishment Programs 1\. Select a specific behaviour 2\. Minimize causes of that behaviour 3\. Maximize conditions for desirable alternative behaviour 4\. Select punisher that: a. can be presented immediately following behaviour b. won't be paired with positive reinforcement c. can be presented following every instance of behaviour 5\. Plan to present clear S DP 6\. Plan to deliver punishment in a calm manner **Chapter 16: Escape & Avoidance Conditioning** - Escape Conditioning: Occurs when a stimulus being removed after a behaviour increases that behaviour's likelihood in the future. - Escape conditioning and negative reinforcement both involve the removal of something negative in order to increase a behaviour - Avoidance Conditioning: Occurs when behaviour prevents an aversive stimulus from occurring, thereby increasing that behaviour's likelihood in the future **Study Slide:** Sidman Avoidance Conditioning (SAC) -- avoidance schedule -- target response postpones delivery of aversive stimulus -- no warning signal for impending aversive stimulus eg. there are no mosquitos buzzing on first tee of golf course, but the golfer applies insect repellent to avoid bites / stings during the round of golf - Consequences that maintain avoidance responses: 1) termination of the warning stimulus 2) termination of anxiety associated with/caused by the warning stimulus 3) cessation of unpleasant thoughts about forthcoming punisher (example: caused by the warning stimulus - Potential Pitfalls: Unwittingly strengthening undesirable behaviour "temper tantrums during learning' Caving in, in general Stimuli in the context of aversive stimulus can themselves become aversite (avoid the criticizing coach?)