PSYC 3380 Spring 2025 Exam 1 Study Guide PDF

PSYC 3380 SPRING 2025​EXAM 1 STUDY GUIDE Chapter 1: Intro to Tests/Testing and History ​ Difference between assessment and testing o​ Psychological assessment: Gathering and integration of psychology-related data for the purpose of making a psychological evaluation throu...

PSYC 3380 SPRING 2025​EXAM 1 STUDY GUIDE Chapter 1: Intro to Tests/Testing and History ​ Difference between assessment and testing o​ Psychological assessment: Gathering and integration of psychology-related data for the purpose of making a psychological evaluation through tools such as tests, interviews, case studies, behavioral observation, and specially designed apparatuses and measurement procedures ▪​ The objective of assessment is typically to answer a referral question, solve a problem, or arrive at a decision through the tools of evaluation o​ A psychological test is a device or procedure designed to measure variables related to psychology (for example, intelligence, attitudes, personality, and interests). A test is a sample of behavior ▪​ Psychological tests and other tools of assessment vary by content, format, technical quality, and administration, scoring, and interpretation procedures ▪​ The objective of testing is typically to obtain some gauge, usually numerical in nature, with regard to ability or attribute ​ Major assumptions of psych testing o​ That humans have state or trait characteristics o​ That these differences in these states and traits are important and meaningful o​ That we can quantify these traits in scientific, fair, unbiased and ethical ways o​ That the traits are reasonably stable, though various sources of error are part of the assessment process o​ That our measures relate to actual behavior or possibly future behaviors ​ User qualification levels o​ Level A: Basic qualification ▪​ Tests at this level require minimal training and are straightforward to administer and score. ▪​ Individuals with general training in test administration, such as teachers or HR personnel; no formal psychology training required. Example: a career interest survey o​ Level B: Intermediate Qualification ▪​ Tests at this level require some specialized training in psychology, psychometrics, or test interpretation. Test users must be able to understand and interpret test results within a structured framework.  Professionals with a bachelor's or master’s degree in psychology, education, counseling, or related fields qualify. Example: The MBTI, BDI-II o​ Level C: Advanced Qualification ▪​ Tests at this level require a high degree of expertise in test administration, scoring, interpretation, and clinical use. These tests often measure complex constructs and are used in sensitive or diagnostic contexts. Licensed psychologists or professionals with advanced degrees (e.g., PhD, PsyD) qualify. Example: The WISC-v, MMPI-3, Rorschach ​ Kinds of psych tests, e.g., intelligence, aptitude, interest, etc. o​ Cognitive Ability and intelligence Tests o​ Achievement tests o​ Aptitude tests o​ Personality tests o​ Neuropsychological tests o​ Vocational or career tests o​ Attitude and belief tests o​ behavioral and adaptive functioning tests o​ clinical or diagnostic tests o​ interest and values tests o​ see Part 1 Intro slides for more info ​ Test’s framework aspects and psychometric aspects o​ Test’s Framework Aspects: ▪​ Content: The subject matter of a test varies with the focus of the particular test and based on the theoretical orientation of different test developers ▪​ Format: The form, plan, structure, layout of test items, and other considerations (Example: Time limits). ▪​ Administration: Tests may either involve demonstration of certain tasks demanded of the test taker and trained observation of performance or may not even require the involvement of test administrators ▪​ Scoring and interpretation: Scoring of some tests may be simple, such as summing responses to items. Ranging from simple to elaborate procedures o​ Test’s Psychometric Aspects ▪​ Reliability: The consistency or stability of test results over time or internally within itself ▪​ Validity: The extent to which a test accurately measures what it claims to measure  ▪​ Standardization: The process of ensuring uniform and consistent administration, scoring, and interpretation of a test across test takers, settings, conditions, etc. ▪​ Norms: A set of standards derived from a large, representative sample that allows for individual scores to be interpreted relative to others ▪​ Measurement Error: The difference between the observed score and the true score due to inconsistencies or inaccuracies ▪​ Test Fairness: The extent to which a test is free of bias and provides equitable outcomes across different groups ​ Limitations of psych testing o​ Bias: Psychologists may selectively attend to behaviors that are consistent with their expectations (confirmation bias). Preference and availability of certain instruments o​ Patient Factors: Motivation, physical/health status, cooperation/effort. Response biases: random responding, positive impression management, social desirability, negative impression management, malingering. Comfort with the testing situation and examiner o​ Assessment of Diverse populations: Culture, ethnicity, race, primary language, SES, level of education are variables that influence test results. Validity of test results may be attenuated when instruments are used inappropriately cross-culturally. Stereotype threats ​ What is computer assisted psychological assessment (CAPA) and its advantages o​ CAPA has allowed for tailor-made tests with built-in scoring and interpretive capabilities. e.g TOVA (clicker) ​ I will pick 8 of the main historical figures- what are each known for? o​ Review from powerpoint Chapter 3: Norms, Standard Scores, Stat Review ​ Difference between norm v criterion referenced tests o​ Norm-Referenced Tests (NRTs): Compare an individual’s performance to that of a normative group (e.g., how a test-taker performs relative to peers) ▪​ Scores are reported as standardized, e.g., percentiles, standard scores, or ranks, indicating position relative to as group ▪​ Provide a comparative ranking but may not offer more detailed insights of performance ▪​ Examples: IQ Tests (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale - WAIS-4): SAT  o​ Criterion-Referenced Tests (CRTs): Measure whether an individual has achieved specific learning objectives or skills, regardless of how others perform ▪​ Scores reflect mastery or non-mastery of specific content, often reported as pass/fail or percentage correct ▪​ Offer detailed feedback on specific areas of strength and weakness ▪​ Examples: Driving License Test: Measures whether a person meets the criteria to drive safely. End-of-unit exams: Tests whether students have learned specific topics in a course ​ Definitions of norming and standardization; other/different types of norms, e.g., age, grade, etc. o​ Norms refer to the standardized scores or average performance data gathered from a representative group o​ These scores serve as a reference point to interpret individual test results o​ Norms allow test-takers’ scores to be compared to others in theri group o​ Norm-referenced tests show where an individual falls relative to the group ​ Recognize 3 measures of central tendency and 3 of variability o​ 3 Measures of central tendency: Mean, median, standard divisions o​ 3 of variability: Range, variance, Standard Deviation ​ Z scores (be able to calculate and use) and other standard scores (SS); know different kinds (percentiles, T, Deviation IQ, Scaled, Sten, NCE, Quartiles, Stanines); advantages/disadvantages of standard scores o​ Z score: x-mu/sd o​ WORK ON THIS ONE ​ Use z scores to convert to another standard score ​ Departures from normal curve: +/- skewness (how affects central tendency); platy, meso, lepto kurtosis (how affects variance) o​ A deviation in central tendency is called skew o​ A deviation in in variability is called kurtosis ▪​ Platy (flat or plateau), meso (medium), Lepto (lept up, highest) ▪​ Negative skew is left skewed (tail is on left) ​ How to interpret a correlation coefficient; how do outliers and restriction of range lower correlations o​ -1 to 1. outliers pull it towards the extreme, they decrease the effect size ​ Recognize/distinguish among advanced stat techniques: effect size, multiple regression, factor analysis, reliability analysis – what used for? o​ Effect size tells you how meaningful the relationship between variables is  ▪​ It indicates the practical significance of a research outcome o​ Factor analysis (FA) is a technique that is used to reduce a large number of variables into fewer numbers of factors (underlying latent structures) ▪​ Used frequently in exploring a tests construct validity o​ Cronbach’s alpha is most commonly used measure of internal consistency (reliability) Chapter 4: Reliability ​ For the different types of reliability below, define and recognize in applied examples ​ what is X=T+E; sources of test error o​ Observed score = True score plus error o​ Error (E) refers to the difference between the observed score (x) and the true score (T) ​ 2 Temporal stability: Test-retest, parallel/equivalent form, coefficients of stability and equivalence o​ Test-retest: Test given to same subjects at different times o​ Parallel forms: For each form of the test, the means and the variances of observed test scores are equal o​ Coefficient of equivalence: Measures the degree of the relationship between various forms of a test by means of alternate-form or parallel-forms o​ With intervals greater than 6 months, the estimate of test-retest reliability is called the coefficient of stability ​ 3 Internal consistency: Split half, Chronbach’s alpha, inter-rater/scorer, coefficient of agreement=kappa o​ Inter-rater/scorer: The degree of agreement or consistency between two or more scorers (or judges or raters) with regard to a particular measure o​ Coefficient of inter-scorer reliability (kappa): A correlation coefficient used to determine the degree of consistency among scorers o​ Kappa (k) is a statistical measure of inter-rater reliability for categorical variables o​ Split-half (internal consistency) reliability: Obtained by correlating two pairs of scores obtained from equivalent halves of a single test administered once. e.g odd/even o​ Cronbach's Alpha (internal consistency): is the coefficient representing all possible split-half reliabilities. It is the most common measure of reliability when the data are scale data (ratio or interval) ▪​ 0.6-0.7 indicates an acceptable level of reliability, and 0.8 or greater is a very good level ​ Under what conditions are the Spearman Brown formula, KR20, KR21 formulas used?  o​ The Spearman-Brown prediction formula is a formula relating psychometric reliability to test length and used by psychometricians to predict the reliability of a test after changing the test length (usu. Shortening it). Estimate how changing the length of a test affects its reliability o​ The KR20 formula is a measure of internal consistency (the Chronbach’s alpha) of dichotomous or binary test items of varying difficulty (right/wrong, yes/no, true/false) ▪​ The scores for KR-20 range from 0 to 1. 0 is no reliability while 1 is perfect reliability..80 is considered good o​ The KR-21 is similar, except it’s used for a test where the dichotomous items are all about the same difficulty o​ Only use the KR20 if each item has a right answer. Do NOT use with a Likert scale ​ Standard Error of Measurement SEm – definition, formula, calculate SEm, use SEm to construct confidence intervals at 68%, 95%, 99% o​ SEm is a statistical measure that quantifies the amount of error inherent in a test score due to imperfect reliability ▪​ It estimates how much an individual’s observed score is expected to fluctuate around their true score if the test were administered multiple times under identical conditions ▪​ The SEm is especially meaningful to a test taker because it applies to a single score and it uses the same units as the test o​ SEm = s sub x Sq root 1-r subxx ▪​ s sub x is the standard deviation for the test ▪​ rxx is the reliability coefficient (alpha) for the test o​ The higher the reliability coefficient, the lower the standard error of measurement o​ 68% Confidence Interval = [x - 1SEm, s; + 1*SEm] o​ 95% Confidence Interval = [x - 2SEm, s; + 2*SEm] o​ 99% Confidence Interval = [x -32SEm, s; + 3*SEm] ​ Recognize: classical test theory, generalizability theory, item response theory – what does each focus on/what differentiates them? o​ Classical test theory (CTT) is a body of related psychometric theory that predicts outcomes of psychological testing such as the difficulty of items or the ability of test-takers  ▪​ It is a theory of testing based on the idea that a person’s observed or obtained score on a test is the sum of a true score (error-free score) and an error score ▪​ The aim of classical test theory is to understand and improve the reliability of psychological tests o​ Generalizability Theory ▪​ Focus on Measurement Reliability ▪​ Multiple Sources of error - Unlike CTT, generalizability theory looks at many sources of potential error ▪​ Generalization of results - helps this o​ Item response theory ▪​ Measures how well questions work ▪​ Takes into account difficulty ▪​ Focuses on individual responses ▪​ Customizes tests - can help create more personalized tests by adjusting the difficulty of questions based on how a person answers previous ones Chapter 5: Validity ​ For each of the validity types below, know definition and be able to recognize in applied examples ​ 4 types: face, content, criterion (predictive/concurrent, construct (convergent/discriminant -- considered most important kind) ​ Factor Analysis, Multitrait/Multimethod – how used to establish construct validity o​ Factor analysis is a data reduction technique that is very useful for construct validity o​ MTMM: A way of quantifying, evaluating convergent and discriminant validities Francis Galton (UK) (1822-1911) ​ Eugenics Movement: Emphasized hereditary influences on intelligence. ​ Early Psychological Measurement: Created some of the first tools for measuring mental abilities, focusing on sensory and motor skills. ​ Statistical Innovations: Introduced correlation and regression to the mean.  ​ Data Collection Methods: Developed and used questionnaires and surveys. Memorization Tip: Think of “Galton’s Genetics” to remember his focus on heredity. James McKeen Cattell (UK, US) (1860-1944) ​ First Psychology Professor in the US (University of Pennsylvania). ​ Coined the term “mental test.” ​ Functionalist Approach: Focused on what the mind does and the purpose of behavior. ​ Classic Paper: “Mental Tests and Measurements.” ​ Legitimized Psychology: Helped establish psychology as a scientific discipline. Memorization Tip: “Cattell’s Tests” for his role in developing mental testing. Alfred Binet (France) (1857-1911) ​ Commissioned by French Government: Developed the first intelligence test to identify students needing special education. ​ Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale (1905): Created with Theodore Simon. ​ Concept of Mental Age: Compared a child's intellectual performance to age norms. ​ Believed Intelligence Was Malleable: Warned against labeling children. Memorization Tip: “Binet’s Brain” for intelligence testing and mental age. Charles Spearman (US) (1863-1945) ​ Two-Factor Theory of Intelligence: Proposed “g” (general intelligence) and “s” (specific abilities). ​ Developed Factor Analysis: Statistical method for analyzing intelligence and personality. ​ Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient: Important statistical contribution. Memorization Tip: “Spearman’s ‘g’” for general intelligence. E.L. Thorndike (US) (1874-1949) ​ Law of Effect: Behavior is shaped by positive and negative consequences. ​ Intelligence Testing: Created CAVD test (Completion, Arithmetic, Vocabulary, Directions). ​ Three Intelligences: Abstract, mechanical, and social intelligence. Memorization Tip: “Thorndike’s Theory” for behavior and learning. Herman Rorschach (Switzerland) (1884-1922) ​ Rorschach Inkblot Test (1920): Projective test for unconscious psychological processes. ​ Controversy: Initially criticized as pseudoscience but later refined with standardized interpretation. ​ Current Use: Still employed in clinical, forensic, and research settings. Memorization Tip: “Rorschach’s Ink” for inkblot personality testing. Henry A. Murray (US) (1893-1988) ​ Developed Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): Assesses personality and motives. ​ Personology Concept: Emphasized life history and psychoanalysis. ​ Theory of Psychogenic Needs: Identified needs like achievement and affiliation. Memorization Tip: “Murray’s Motives” for his focus on personality and needs. David Wechsler (US) (1896-1981) ​ Wechsler Intelligence Scales: ○​ WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, 1955). ○​ WISC (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, 1949).  ○​ WPPSI (Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scales of Intelligence, 1967). ​ Defined Intelligence: “The global capacity to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with the environment.” Memorization Tip: “Wechsler’s WAIS” for adult intelligence testing. Gordon Allport (US) (1897-1967) ​ Trait Factor Theory: Introduced cardinal, central, and secondary traits. ​ Personality Psychology Pioneer: Advocated for studying individual uniqueness. ​ Healthy Personality Focus: Studied normal personality rather than disorders. Memorization Tip: “Allport’s Traits” for personality structure. Raymond Cattell (UK, US) (1905-1998) ​ Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence: Distinguished between problem-solving ability and accumulated knowledge. ​ 16 Personality Factor Model (16PF): Major personality assessment tool. ​ Factor Analysis: Key method in studying personality and intelligence. Memorization Tip: “Cattell’s Crystals” for fluid and crystallized intelligence. Hans Eysenck (UK, US) (1915-1997) ​ Three-Factor Model of Personality: Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Psychoticism. ​ Behavior Genetics: Argued mental abilities and personality are biologically based. ​ Developed Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI). Memorization Tip: “Eysenck’s EPI” for personality assessment. Paul Costa and Robert McCrae (Both b. 1940s) ​ Five-Factor Model (FFM) / Big Five Traits: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism. ​ NEO Personality Inventory: Developed personality tests widely used in clinical research. Memorization Tip: “Big Five OCEAN” for personality dimensions. The University of Minnesota Group - MMPI Starke Hathaway and J.C. McKinley (1943) ​ Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI): Used in clinical psychology. ​ MMPI-2 (1989): Updated norms. ​ MMPI-A (1992): Adolescent version. ​ MMPI-3 (2020): Latest refinement. Memorization Tip: “Minnesota = MMPI” for mental health assessment. Anna Anastasi (1908–2001) ​ "Mother of Psychological Testing" ​ Psychological Testing (1954): Influential textbook. ​ Contextual Intelligence: Emphasized environmental influences on test results. Memorization Tip: “Anastasi’s Assessment” for psychological testing. Katherine Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myers (US) ​ Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) (1962-Present): Based on Carl Jung’s theories. ​ Measures Personality Preferences: Used in business and counseling. Memorization Tip: “MBTI Types” for personality categorization. John Holland (1919-2008) - Self-Directed Search (SDS) ​ Holland’s RIASEC Theory: Career types - Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, Conventional. ​ Widely Used in Career Counseling. Memorization Tip: “Holland’s Hexagon” for career types. Robert Yerkes (U.S.) (1876-1956) ​ American psychologist, ethologist, eugenicist, and primatologist. ​ Best known for intelligence testing and comparative psychology. ​ Yerkes Primate Research Center at Emory University named after him. ​ Led the development of Army Alpha (verbal) and Army Beta (non-verbal) tests in WWI. ​ Pioneered standardized psychological test administration and scoring. ​ Emphasized objectivity and replicability in psychometrics. Memorization Tip: Remember "Yerkes, Your Keys to Military Tests" (Yerkes → Army Alpha & Beta tests for soldiers). Robert S. Woodworth (U.S.) (1869-1962) ​ Studied both behavior and consciousness (nature + nurture approach). ​ Developed the Woodworth Personal Data Sheet (WPDS) in WWI—the first objective personality test. ​ Designed to identify soldiers vulnerable to shell shock (PTSD). ​ Pioneered questionnaires for personality testing, leading to modern personality inventories. Memorization Tip: "Woodworth’s Worksheet for Warriors" (WPDS helped assess soldiers’ emotional stability). Henry Goddard (U.S.) (1866-1957) ​ Translated Binet’s test into English and promoted the idea of measurable intelligence. ​ Coined the term “feeblemindedness” (outdated and offensive today) for low IQ scores. ​ Introduced the term “moron” for those with mild intellectual disabilities (IQ 51-70). ​ Advocated for eugenics, supporting sterilization laws and restrictive immigration policies. Memorization Tip: "Goddard’s Grim Grading" (his IQ grading influenced controversial policies). Lewis Terman (U.S.) (1877-1956) ​ Revised and standardized the Binet-Simon test, creating the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale. ​ Popularized the IQ formula: (Mental Age / Chronological Age) × 100. ​ Conducted the Genetic Studies of Genius, a longitudinal study on gifted children. Memorization Tip: "Terman’s Talent Tracking" (his IQ test and study focused on high-achieving individuals). Summary & Quick Recall Guide: ​ Yerkes → Army Alpha & Beta (Military Intelligence Testing) ​ Woodworth → WPDS (First Personality Test) ​ Goddard → Intelligence Testing & Eugenics Advocacy ​ Terman → Stanford-Binet & Gifted Studies