PSYC 273 Exam 2 Study Guide PDF

PSYC 273 Exam 2 Study Guide Learning in Infancy Habituation (see section on Vision) Classical conditioning o Components of a classical conditioning study o Examples of studies using classical conditioning § Little Albert § Other hy...

PSYC 273 Exam 2 Study Guide Learning in Infancy Habituation (see section on Vision) Classical conditioning o Components of a classical conditioning study o Examples of studies using classical conditioning § Little Albert § Other hypothetical, everyday examples Operant conditioning o Reinforcement and punishment (positive and negative) o Examples of studies using operant conditioning § Rovee-Collier and colleagues’ mobile studies § Other hypothetical, everyday examples Imitation o Imitation in newborns o Possibility of early imitation as a reflex Cognitive Development: Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory Constructivism Schemes o Adaptation § Assimilation, accommodation, and organization § Equilibrium and disequilibrium Piaget’s stages o Sensorimotor stage (do not need to remember the names of the six substages) § Circular reactions § Role of reflexes § Object permanence Follow-up, more modern research using violation-of-expectation method § A-not-B error § Deferred imitation o Preoperational stage § Increases in mental representation and language § Make-believe play Impact of follow-up, modern research on our understanding of importance of play § Symbolic representation DeLoache’s study on dual or symbolic representation § Egocentrism Three-mountains task Follow-up research  § Animistic thinking Follow-up research § Conservation Limitations on preoperational thought and the inability to pass conservation tasks o Centration o Irreversibility § Hierarchical classification o Concrete operational stage § Changes in thought § Conservation Developments in thought that lead to success on the conservation tasks o Decentration o Reversibility Follow-up research § Hierarchical classification Piaget’s class inclusion problem § Seriation Transitive inference § Spatial reasoning “Mental walk” Cognitive maps o Impact of culture o Formal operational stage § Abstract thought § Hypothetical-deductive reasoning Piaget’s pendulum problem § Propositional thought Propositions Piaget’s poker chip problem § Follow-up research Piaget’s legacy o Strengths and weaknesses of theory Cognitive Development: Core Knowledge Theories Assumptions core knowledge theories o Domains of core knowledge (do not memorize what they are, but focus on what they mean to the theory) Violation-of-expectation method o Be familiar with examples of this method used to test physical knowledge of objects and numerical knowledge Follow-up  o Strengths and weaknesses Cognitive Development: Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory Impact of social interaction and language on cognitive development Zone of proximal development o Scaffolding Make-believe play Private speech o Views of Piaget versus Vygotsky Follow-up o Strengths and weaknesses Cognitive Development: Information Processing Approach General assumptions/basis of information processing perspective Attention o Sustained attention § Importance to information processing and goal-directed behavior § Heart rate and sustained attention in infancy § Development of sustained attention in early childhood o Selective attention § Selective attention and goal-directed behavior o Inhibition (adaptable attention) § Distractors § Relation between inhibition and later development o Card sorting task and development of attention Memory o Development of memory span o Ways to test memory § Recognition § Recall o Types of memory § Episodic memory Scripts Autobiographical memory o Infantile amnesia § Simcock and Hayne’s Magic Shrinking Machine o Follow-up § Strengths and weaknesses Language Development Prerequisites for language Theory of language development o Critical period for language development  § Second language learning § Case study of Genie o Nativist perspective § Noam Chomsky Language acquisition device § “Homesign” and Nicaraguan Sign Language § Limitations of nativism o Interactionist perspective § Native capacity Speech perception o Recognizing phonemes § Categorical perception of phonemes Voice onset time Perceptual narrowing o Word recognition § Rules for combinations of phonemes § Statistical learning of phoneme combinations Saffran et al. study and learning of artificial language o Infant directed speech versus adult directed speech Speech production o Early speech sounds § Cooing § Babbling Sensitive period o Early gestures § Protodeclarative § Protoimperative o Characteristics of first words o Early speech comprehension § Lag between comprehension and production § Underextension § Overextension o Learning new vocabulary § Fast-mapping o Grammar development § Development of sentence use § Overregularization § Supporting grammar development Recast Expansion § Pragmatics Developmental change Supplemental essay questions (these are intended to help with studying, but will not be on the exam) 1. Describe Piaget’s sensorimotor stage of development, including follow-up research on Piaget’s ideas. 2. Compare Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s views on children’s make-believe play. 3. Discuss the limitations of preoperational thought from Piaget’s point of view. 4. Describe the core knowledge perspective of cognitive development. 5. How can adults influence children’s autobiographical narratives? 6. What are scripts, and how do they influence memory and understanding in everyday life? 7. What are sustained attention, selective attention, and inhibition? How are they related to one another on the card sorting task? 8. Describe the nativist and interactionist perspectives of language development. 9. Describe early speech sounds, including the acquisition of communication skills during infancy and toddlerhood. 10. Describe pragmatic language development, including factors that support early communication skills. LECTURE NOTES 09-26-24 Learning in Infancy Learning in Infancy -Habituation -Classical Conditioning (ex: little albert study) -Operant Conditioning -Imitation Classical Conditioning (doesn't always have to involve emotional contact) : A form of learning that consists of associating a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that always evokes a particular reflexive response -Neutral Stimulus (NS): Evokes no reflexive response -Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Evokes a reflexive response -Unconditioned Response (UCR): reflexive response elicited by UCS -Conditoned Stimulus (CS): repeatedly paired with UCS to elicit CR -Conditioned Response (CR)(the fear response is now being produced) Instrumental (Operant) Conditioning A form of learning that consists of associating consequences with behavior; increase/decrease probability that a behavior will occur again through use of reinforcement/punishment Reinforcement: Increases probability of behavior occuring again -Desirable stimulus (Remove something that is desireable) -Unpleasant stimulus (show something undesireable) -Postive and Negative reinforcement Punishment: Reduces probability of behavior occuring again -Unpleasant stimulus (show something undesireable) -Desirable stimulus (Remove something that is desireable) -Negative & Positive punishment LECTURE NOTES 09-26-24 Learning in Infancy Instrumental Conditioning Example Lily’s parents tell her if she shares her Halloween candy with her brother Tommy, she can stay up late to watch a Halloween movie. -Positive Reinforcement: Sharing candy (behavior) is rewarded by staying up late (reinforcer), making her more likely to share in the future. Rovee-Collier & Bhatt (1993) -Kicking increases when mobile movement is activated -3 month olds remeber 1 week after testing -6 month olds remember 2 weeks after testing Imitation Learning through observation of others' behavior Infants have an innate ability to imitate -Facial expressions & finger gestures -Seen cross culturally -Seen in some ape spieces Simple imitation harder to induce in older babies -is it just a relfex? or a choice? Mirror neurons - Some neurons in our brain will fire identically wheter we do the action or see someone else do the action Capacity improves with age -Babies and kids get better at engaging in more complex expressions -They're learning instrumental skills & social conventions through imitation LECTURE NOTES 09-26-24 Cognitive Development: Introduction to Piaget *Jean Piaget created the cognitive development theory; based on observations based on his own children Constructivist Approach (founder of this perspective) Piaget believed... -Reinforcers were not necessary in order to motive children to learn; they're constantly curious -Children construct knowledge through interactions with their environment -Neo constructivist: Ideas from Piaget take and made to fit the modernized world Schemes -Organized ways of making sense of experiences -Piaget believed schemes were built through adaptation (interation with environment) Adaptation Assimilation: Use current schemes to interpret the external world -Occurs during equilibrium (periods asociatioed with less change) Accomodation: Create new schemes or update old schemes in order to take better fit the environment -Occurs during disquilibrium Organization: Involves arranging and linking our schemes LECTURE NOTES 09-26-24 Cognitive Development: Introduction to Piaget Piaget's Stages Provided a general theory of development -Stages are Invariant: people cannot skip a stage; everyone is following this order of stages -Stages are Universal: Piaget believed they should be able to be applied to every child across the world Cognitive Development Stages.... Sensorimotor Stage Preoperational Stage Concrete Operational Stage Formal Operational Stage LECTURE NOTES 09-26-24 Piaget's Sensorimotor Stage Sensorimotor Stage (Birth-2 years of age & includes 6 substages) Circular reactions -attempt to recreate chance experience -Leads to new scheme Reflexive Schemes -From birth-1 month -Newborn reflexes Primary Circular Reactions -Babies are aquireing early motor control -Able to more purposely intergerate these early reflexes -Beahviors are motivated by the babies own body's & basic need Secondary Circular Reactions -Baies are trying to repeat interesting effets on the enviorment -Imitate familiar interesting behaviors they see Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions -Involves more complex actions -Believed to be more intentional and goal directing -Example: Mastering Object Permanence Object Permanence Understand objects continue to exist when out of sight -Still makes A-not-B error -Baby continues to reach and look for the object of where it was (location A), even after seeing it hidden somewhere else (location B) LECTURE NOTES 09-26-24 Piaget's Sensorimotor Stage Tertiary Circular Reactions -Babies begin to explore objoects through novel actions -They also master the A not B task -Front lobe is starting to develop a lot during this time Mental Representations -Kids are developing mental representations of things that occur in daily life -Deferred imitation develops; long term memory for things in their envionmrnt allow them to imitate after the fact -Make believe play; demostrationg these mental representations in pretend play LECTURE NOTES 10-1-24 Piaget's Preoperational Stage Piaget's Preoperational Stage 2-7 years of age Extraordinary increase in mental representation Language -Sensorimotor activity -> Internal images -> word labels language really asists through mental representation Make Believe Play -Kids are beginning to practice and strengthen through new schemes With age, play -Detaches more from real life -Less self centered in the play they are engaging in -Becomes more sociodramatic, involving others within the play being collaborators building upon one anothers ideas Symbolic Representation -Viewing a symbolic object as both an object and a symbol -Understanfing of a symbolic object; a map is an object but also a representative of a larger space -Mastered around the age of 3 -Adult teaching can help LECTURE NOTES 10-1-24 Piaget's Preoperational Stage DeLoache (1987) study Task: Children were shown a scale model of a room and asked to find a hidden object in the real room based on where it was hidden in the model. Key Findings: -5-year-olds struggled to use the model as a representation of the real room. -3-year-olds could successfully use the model to find the hidden object. Developmental Significance: -Shows young children's developing ability to understand symbolic representation—the idea that one object can represent another. LECTURE NOTES 10-1-24 Piaget's Preoperational Stage Limitations of Preoperational Thought -Egocentric -Animistic Thinking -Inability to conserve (conservation) -Lack of hierarchical classification Limitation: Egocentrism -Refers to the diffiuclty with distinguishing ones own view point from others -Lack of awareness of other perspectives Limitation: Animistic Thinking -Belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities (Refers to applying animate qualities to inanimate objects) -Kids apply thoughts, feelings, and intentions, to things like their toys believing these things posses life like qualities Limitation: Conversation -The idea that an objects characterists can stay the same even if their appearance stays the same -Due to Centration (focusing on one aspect and neglecting others) -Also struggling with Irreversibility: Inability to mentally reverse series of steps LECTURE NOTES 10-1-24 Piaget's Preoperational Stage Conservation Tasks -Conservation of Liquid Quanity: "If I pour the same amount of water from a tall, skinny glass into a short, wide glass, is there more, less, or the same amount of water?" -Conservation of Solid Quanity: "If I roll a ball of clay into a flat pancake, is there more, less, or the same amount of clay as before?" -Conservation of Number: "If I spread these five coins farther apart, are there more coins, fewer coins, or the same number of coins as before?" Limitation: Hierarchical Classification -Piaget call this his class inclusion task -Involves the ability to organize obejcts into classes and subclasess based on similarities and differences -"Are there more flowers or red flowers" (they arent able to think of a sub catergory of red flowers and struggles ot considers the broader catergory at the same times) LECTURE NOTES 10-1-24 Piaget's Concrete Operational & Formal Operational Stages Piaget's Concrete Operational Stage Incldues kids 7-11 years old -Thought is becoming increasingly logical, flexible, and organized Conversation -Kids now pass the conservation test Have operations... -Decentration: Finally have the ability to focus on multiple aspects -Revervesibilty Finally are able to logically think back to a sequence of action Hierarchical Classification -Successfully solving the class inclusion task Seriation (Refers to the ability to put things into order) -Kids around age 6-7 can efficiently order items along a quatitative dimension -Kids around age 7 gain the ability to seriate things mentally LECTURE NOTES 10-1-24 Piaget's Concrete Operational & Formal Operational Stages Spatial Reasoning -Kids are showing the ability to use directions -Able to think about yourself in someoen else's position to understand someone else's direction/guide (ex: -Kids are able to give provide a 'Mental Walk' (give directions by reimiaging yourself traveling to and from the location; focus on higly familiar areas -Cognitive Maps (Gaining larger scale representation of spaces) -How frequented locations are related to each other; kids are able to discuss those Piaget's Formal Operational Stage -Around 11 years or older -Involves abstract, systematic, scientific thought Hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning -Hypothesis Bases -Become capable of developing hypotheses they can deduce and make logial, testable inferences -Tests through isolation and combination of variables LECTURE NOTES 10-1-24 Piaget's Concrete Operational & Formal Operational Stages Piaget's Pendulum Problem Piaget's Pendulum Problem -Task: Determine what affects the speed of a pendulum's swing. -Variables: String length, weight, height of release, force of push. Key Influence: -Only string length affects the speed—the shorter the string, the faster the swing. Developmental Significance: -Concrete operational stage (ages 7-11): Children struggle to test variables systematically. -Formal operational stage (ages 12+): Adolescents can isolate variables and understand that only string length affects speed. Propositional Thought -Involves evaluating the logic of propisitions (verbal statements) without referring to real-world information -Ex: The chip in my hand with either be green or not green; true or false statement (kids who are younger than the preoperatinal stage really struggle with this more abtract thought) LECTURE NOTES 10-1-24 Piaget's Legacy Piaget's Legacy Theory continues to be very influential and inform of reasearches on how they approach certain studies and processes Weaknesses: -Vauge about mechanisms producing cognitive growth (Where is the why?) -Underestimates kids' abilites -Contribution of social world (The roles of other kids and parents that can play in cognitive development?) Follow-Up: Sensorimotor Stage -Follow up study shows evidecne of early development of object permancence -Kids as young as 2 months of age, will look longer at the unexpected event rather than the expected event Follow-Up: Sensorimotor Stage -Follow up research on imitation -Research showing that even 6 week old infants will imiatate facial expression one day after being shown them -around 6-9 months kids begin to copy actions with objects -around 12-18 months kids are abile ot imitale the action skillfully -with age they're able to recall this after longer periods of time LECTURE NOTES 10-1-24 Piaget's Legacy Follow-Up: Preoperational Stage -The benefits of play is greater than predicted -Pretend play strengthens many mental abilites (for young kids development).... -Sustained attention -Memory -Language and literacy -Creatiivty -Regulation of emotion -Perspective Taking Follow-Up: Preoperational Stage -Believed that Egocentrism is exaggerated -As young as 2 years old show awarenss of unique views -Preschoolers adjust language based on their audience Follow-Up: Preoperational Stage -Animistic thinking over-estimated -Occasinally attributed to animals, rarely to inanimate objects -Kids think more magical thinking than animistic thinking (like believeing in santa, the tooth fairy, ghosts) Follow-Up: Concrete Operational Stage Kids struggle using operations with abstract Continuum of Acquistion -kids begin to master concrete operational taks at a more gradual pace -Culture and schooling affect kids performance on task LECTURE NOTES 10-1-24 Piaget's Legacy Follow-Up: Formal Operations -Ideas indicate younger kids being to show more competence to abstract thoguhts -Can consider more variables -Can grasp logical necessity Follow-Up: Formal Operations -Formal operations may not be universal -We learn tool for engaing in scientific reasoning and logical necessity, through training, which helps master these things -Educated people tend to fall back on easier thinking LECTURE NOTES 10-3-24 Core Knowledge Theories Core Knowledge Theories -Theorists believe that kids are born with innate knowledge of systems -Kids are learning so much so quickly after born, they must have some tools or mechanisms to navigate this from birth -Helps kids have early rapid -Domain Specific Development: Unique areas of core knowledge Domains of Core Knowledge -Physical (Kids have an understanding of physical objects) -Numerical (Kids can keep track of multiple objects and add and subtract small numbers) -Linguistic (Kids develop language skills enabling effective communication and understanding of the world) -Psychological (Kids view other people as unique agents that have mental states and unique ways of thinking) -Biological (Kids are able to differentiate living and non living things) -Believed to reflect information based on a specifc content area -Different mechanisms are responsible for different domains Testing Knowledge in Infancy -Violation- of -expectation method: Shows one thing that is going to be suprising and impossible VS not suprising and expected and totally possible -Arguing that kids are going to be more drawn and look longer to the suprising and unexpected events LECTURE NOTES 10-3-24 Core Knowledge Theories Violation of Expectation The Baillargeon Box Study -Tested infants' understanding of object permanence. - Babies saw a box on a platform and a screen that either stopped when it hit the box (possible event) or passed through it (impossible event) -Infants looked longer at the impossible event, showing surprise, which suggests they knew objects shouldn't pass through each other. -This showed that babies understand object permanence earlier than Piaget thought. Numerical Knowledge Wynn (1992) Puppet Study -infants watched as puppets placed objects behind a screen. Sometimes the number of objects shown after was right (possible event), and sometimes it was wrong (impossible event). -Babies looked longer at the wrong number, showing they had a basic understanding of numbers and addition at 5 months old. Follow-Up: Core Knowledge -Really trying to understand early development and how infants so quickly aquire knowledge and information about the world -Trying to address the 'how?' Weaknesses -Infants having innate knowledge is hotly debated (viewed as a copout) -Many say nature and nurture work together but not how -Not getting a strong idea of the roles of others and the outside world on cognitive development LECTURE NOTES 10-3-24 Sociocultural Theory Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory -Viewed the mind is relaly being socially formed Sociocultural Theory -Cognition is going to develop based on social interaction -Language is very important for higher levels of cogniton -Rapid language growth leads to a change in thinking -Guided Participation: Refers to the idea that a lot of learning occurs when we team up with others, especially when those we're learning with is more knowledgable on the specifc task (this helps facilitate learning) Zone of Proximal Development -An abstract context in which leanring occurs -Not a physical location, but more metaphorical -A place where the task for the child is too diffcult to do alone but possible with help from others -Meets you at your level so that you can aqquire a new skill, information, and/or knowledge Scaffolding -Seen when the expert other (teacher, parent, adult, another child) adjusts support offered during an activity to fit the child's current level of knowledge -Providing guidance to them and not doing it for them (like, offering tools of success or a helpful strategy) LECTURE NOTES 10-3-24 Sociocultural Theory Make-Believe Play -One area where Vygotsky and Piaget agree -Vgotsky believed that Make Believe Play was a ZPD (Zone of Proximal Development) where children advance themselves -Believed kids needed training in order to utilize this tool correctly -Kids are leanring based on their ideas -Kids are also learning to think before acting Private Speech -Seen when young kids are talking out loud to themselves -Piaget called this "Egocentric Speech" they are still developing the ability to see things from others' perspectives, so they talk out loud mainly for themselves, not to communicate with others -Vgotsky disagreed and believed they used this tool for personal guidance; they tend to turn to this when problems get harder rather than easier -Ex: When kids are learning to count and add, using finger counting outwardly, but as you get older and develop the skills you do the counting and problem internally Vygotsky: Private Speech -Believed to be used for self guidance -The foundation of all higher cognitive processes -As tasks become easier, the outward speech begins to disappear and turns to inner speech LECTURE NOTES 10-3-24 Sociocultural Theory Follow-Up: Sociocultural Theory Explains cultural diversity in cognition and social interaction Emphasizes the role of teaching; how teaching can drive learning Weaknesses -Really nurture heavy and not getitng a sense of nature or biological factors that impacts development -Vauge in explanation of change; What drives these changes? LECTURE NOTES 10-3-24 Cognitive Development: Information Processing Theories (Attention) Information-Processing Approach -This approach tends to be more data driven -Strong emphasis on the mind and brain; our mind or brian are complex symbol manipulating system -Focus on structure and function of cognitive systems -Improving our cognitive skills over time and they are buliding upon one another Implications for Development -Going to see gradual increases in these broad areas Basic Capacity (general capacity for knowledge is growing) Processing speed (getting faster) Executive Function (Our ability to control our attention is increasing) Development of Attention -Sustained -Selective -Adaptable (inhibition) Sustained Attention -People are foucused and demonstrating direct attentivneess -When voluntary information-processing occurs -Required for goal-directed behavior -Infants are in sustained attention based on decelerated heart rate LECTURE NOTES 10-3-24 Cognitive Development: Information Processing Theories (Attention) During Sustained Attention, Infants... -Are encoding information -Demonstrating recogniton -More resistant to distractors Sustained Attention Increased sharply in 2 to 3.5 year olds -Fronal Lobe Advanced Play (a great time to practice in maintaining and controlloing attentnion -Scaffolding Selective attention also increases Selective Attention -Intentional focus on information most important to the current goal Inhibition Refers to our ability to contrrol distracting stimuli -This can be internal (inner thoughts; like thinking about what to eat for lunch) -This can also be external (distractors; like recieving a text) -Kids are getting better with this as they get older -Inhibition is an important predictor of soical function and academic achievement in adolescents LECTURE NOTES 10-3-24 Cognitive Development: Information Processing Theories (Attention) Inhibition & the Card Sorting Task -The card sorting task tests cognitive flexibility and inhibition. -Participants sort cards based on a rule (e.g., color, shape). -The rule changes unexpectedly, requiring them to switch to a new sorting rule. -Successful switching involves inhibiting the old rule and adapting to the new one. -Difficulty switching indicates issues with inhibition and cognitive control. Planning -Thinking out a sequence of acts and allocating attention to reach a goal -This improves with age Impact of Cultural Tools Tools that support planning -Instructions for games -Patterns for constructions (legos) -Recipes -Experts are an important influence and can plan a role in this; if they engage these tools with them they can provide that support -Practice is also an important influence LECTURE NOTES 10-10-24 Cognitive Development: Information Processing Theories (Memory) Increases in Memory Span -Our capacity for memoery is going to improve with age-- just like our capacities with attention Memory: Recognition -Notice a stimulus is identical/similar to one previously experienced Utilized from early infancy (present in infancy) -Familiarity & novelty preferences -Adult-like by preschool Memory: Recall -Generate mental representation of an absent stimulus (like a fill- in-blank with no word bank) -1st evidenced at 6-12 months (like object permanence from piaget) -Lags behind recognition (evidence shows it develops slower that recognition) -Closely associated with language development Episodic Memory -Recall of personally experienced events Two Types -Scripts -Autobiographical memory LECTURE NOTES 10-10-24 Cognitive Development: Information Processing Theories (Memory) Scripts -Develop group specific/general memories for repeated events that follow a causal order Very Beneficial/Helps Children..(relieve cognitive resources so that we can run on autopilot) -Organize & Interpret -Predict -Recall -Pretend (kids can practice this during their pretend-play) -Plan Autobiographical Memory -Memory of personally, meaningful, one-time events -Requires self-image & ability to integrate event into time- organized life-story (need to have a sense of who we are in order to develop this memory; and ability to organize info) -This gets better as kids get older -Develops around 2 years of age Infantile Amnesia -Most of us can't remember events before 3 years of age (though few can) -Some believe this is due to language immaturity Simcock & Hayne's sutdy with the 'Magic Shrinking Machine' LECTURE NOTES 10-10-24 Cognitive Development: Information Processing Theories (Memory) Simcock & Hayne (2003) Next day they would come back and ask the child to describe the experience that happened the day before.. -All the kids had excellent nonverbal memory (a.k.a recognition) of the device and experience itself -Kids under 3 had a large amount of difficulty describing the experience -Increased sharply between 3 & 4 years of age Eyewitness Testimony -After constructing false memory, likely to continue to give it -More accurate recall with more distinctive & personally relevant events -Training can improve accuracy Suggestibility Repeated questions or reinforcement by biased adults -Reinforce desired answers -Increases inaccurate reporting Seen in children of all ages Follow up: Information Processing Breaks cognition into precisre components Can be hard to combine these into one broad picture of cognitive development/ lots of unique perspectives -Specific information about age and indiviual differences -Not getting a strong idea of what the contribution of nature and nurture are LECTURE NOTES 10-15-24 Theories of Language Development Prerequisities for Language -Language is species specific & universal 1. A human brain (the auditory cortex in the left hemisphere is expected to be well suited to language) -the only species that can aquire such complex language skills 1. Experience with human language Critical Period for Language Development During Critical Period (must have exposure to language in order to show typical development) -Language develops easily -Puberty might be an onset when this critical period ends After Critical Period -Language acquisition more difficult -Less successful overall Theories of Language Development -Nativist Perspective -Interactionist Perspective Nativist Perspective -Noam Chomsky (1957) -He argues languages arcoss is too complex to be taught to the independently to a child and the LAD should be used Language acquisition device (LAD) -Innate -Used to produce & comprehend -Universal grammar: inborn rule base, applying to all language (refers to unconscious roles we learn to follow) Support for Nativism -Children's ability to invent new language systems -These systems are highly individualized -"Homesign" -Nicaraguan Sign Language Limitations of Nativism -What are rules of universal grammar? (has not identified the things that are expected to be universal in grammar) -Grammar develops gradually (We see that kids make many grammatical mistakes and recieve training to develop these language skills) -What about motivation to communicate? LECTURE NOTES 10-15-24 Theories of Language Development Interactionist Perspective -Biological predisposition & environment interact -Native capacity: humans have a strong desire to understand others & be understood by them -Information processing thoeries have offered some support toward this perspective Continuing Debate Is language learning... -Domain general? A. Utilizing general cognitive capacities -Domain specific? A. Utilizing capacities specifically tuned to language LECTURE NOTES 10-15-24 Language Development: Phoneme Perception How Do We Define Language -Broad definition: A form of communication Characteristics: -Regular (It's rule governed through grammar) -Productive (There are infinite ways to combine things and convey it through language) -To have conversations, we must transform raw sensory input ( like auditory perception) into meaningful information ^^ This is Speech Perception (Ex: The dog chased the ball) Speech Perception Phonemes are the samllest unit of sound that make the meaningful difference in a language Requires.. 1. Recognition of appropriate phoneme 2. Ability to parse continuous speech stream into words Contextual Effects on Phonemes -Context effects the way Phonemes are percieved -Voice onset time: referred to how quickly after the concept sound is relased how quickly the vocal chords begin to vibrate (EX: /b/ /p/ VOT -Phonemes are percieved catergorically Categorical Phoneme Perception -After developing these catergories, we are not sensitive to some phonemes in other languages How Do These Catergories Develop -The enviornment and experiece with these sounds are going to influence this language development LECTURE NOTES 10-15-24 Language Development: Word Recognition How Do We Learn To Parse Speech? Picking up on statistical regularities in spoken language -Languages follow phonetic rules-- where some letter combinations are 'legal' or appropriate whereas others are not Statistical Learning We can parse speech based on learned statistical regularities -Emerges around 7-9 months -Begin to be able to divide the speech stream into word-like units Infant Directed Speech (IDS) -Also known as 'baby talk' -High-pitched -Exaggerated Pronunciation -Clear pronunciation -Utilizes distinct pauses -Repetition -Preferred by infants & fosters language development LECTURE NOTES 10-15-24 Language Development: Early Speech Production First Speech Sounds 2 months: cooing 6 months: babbling (babababa) -Universal; all babies engage in babbling -If they aren't getting that environmental exposure then babbling will disappear -Sensitive Period -Deaf exposed to signs, babble with hands 10 months: babbling starts to resemble patterns of 1st words (dadadadada) LECTURE NOTES 10-22-24 Language Development: Early Speech Production Early Gestures -It's always the intent behind the gestures Protodeclarative -Gesture made while looking at others to get notice Protoimperative -Gesture made to get another to do something First Words 1st words from 1st sounds (these sounds they've been practicing may turn into their first words) -Mama, papa, nigh nigh Understand more than able to produce Vocab~50 words by 18 months Vocabulary spurt at 18 months (Describe a period of time where we're seeing really rapid time of acquiring vocabulary) Early Comprehension Comprehension develops before production (hearing words a lot before they start using them) -5 months lag -Underextension: apply words too narrowly (taking a broad word and applying it to one thing only) -Overextension: apply words too broadly (taking a specific word and applying it to everything) LECTURE NOTES 10-22-24 Language Development: Early Speech Production Early Media Use & Word Learning -Research examining wheter children using media can help children aquire new vocabulary -Deloache et al. (2010 examined 12-18 month olds' ability to learn new words from videos Vocabulary 6 year olds know (about 1st grade) ~ 10,000 words -Must be learning 5 words a day Fast mapping -Connect new words to meanings with brief exposure (a kid hears a word they don't know and sees it being applied to a new object they dont know either; using context clues to easily link these two together) Coin new words (putting certain words already known together with new words. Use metaphors (taking ideas and applying it to something else they see; ex: pillows are fluffy clouds of the sky) LECTURE NOTES 10-22-24 Language Development: Production, Grammar, & Pragmatics Early Grammar Development Holophrastic Period -One word phrases (kids are using their vocabulary one at a time) Telegraphic Speech -1 1/2 to 2 1/2 years of age -2 word utterances focusing on high content words (ex: go car: "I want to go for a car ride") Grammar Development -3 years: SVO sentences Add grammatical morphemes -Small markers change the meaning of a word (ex: she eating: changes to "she is eating") -Overregularization: Apply rules without exceptions (ex: adding an s to word to make it plural like instead of mice they say mouses) Supporting Language Development -Instead of being overall critical and risk the child's development process; just recast it and fix the mistake in a less overly critical way -Recast: restructure inaccurate speech to correct form (ex: kid says they breaked their crayon, in response the adult says "oh no you BROKE your crayon) -Expansion: Elaborate on children's speech Pragmatics -Ability to engage in effective & appropriate communication -2 year-olds engage in conversation -4-year-olds adjust to listener's age, sex, social status -Break down in challenging situations (like telephone calls; kids tend to freeze up)