Psyc 1010 Lec Notes PDF

Psyc 1010 lec notes # Theoretical perspectives 1) Biological: How your physiology affects thoughts and behavior. 2) Cognitive: How your conscious and subconscious mind influences behavior 3) Psychodynamic: check Froyed’s work...

Psyc 1010 lec notes # Theoretical perspectives 1) Biological: How your physiology affects thoughts and behavior. 2) Cognitive: How your conscious and subconscious mind influences behavior 3) Psychodynamic: check Froyed’s work How the unconscious mind influences behavior, the core is instincts such as sex and aggression. 4) Behavioural: How the environment shapes behavior How society rewards or punishes behavior therefore shaping it over time. 5) Humanistic: Freedom of choice and actualization of the self as it determines behavior. 6) Evolutionary: Any behavior that is observed to date, is a result of adaptive pressures of evolution, in other words survival of the fittest. How behavior adapted to increase chances of survival/ reproduction. 7) Positive psychology: Seligman's work Study of how human behavioral strengths and factors can be flourishing. 1) The scientific approach Measure and describe behavior objectively Understand and explain behavior scientifically Rigorous steps in scientific investigation, such as * formulating a testable hypothesis. * Select method and study design * Collect data * Analyze the data and draw conclusion that the odds of the findings are better than chance alone 2) Descriptive research methods Case studies * in depth analysis of a small or single group of individuals from a unique angle. Surveys, population polls * Sometimes tho surveys can have validity issues, this issue often comes with wording of the survey. * social desirability, E.G York Surveys. Sample biases * sample sizes and diversity is very important Correlational studies * Describes the relationship between two or more variables. * correlational studies are usually positive or negative, positive meaning the more one increases the other does so also, negative meaning its inverse, the more one increases the other decreases. 3) Experimental studies Most powerful research method to detect cause and effect relationship Components of experimental studies are * Independent variable * dependent variable * however conditions can be manipulated, for example being annoying causing anger. Control group * The control group is important for the validity of the study. The group needs to be treated exactly the same, but receives an inactive condition.  Why learn about the brain? 1) There are two main communication systems within the body Endocrine system: Glands and hormones. Nervous system: Neurons and neurotransmitters via electrochemical reactions. 2) The Endocrine system Is the first major communication system within the body. The basic building blocks of the endocrine system is the hormonal release in the bloodstream which regulates basic bodily processes. 3) Central nervous system Of Course neurons are the main building blocks of the nervous system The central nervous system is the brain and the spinal cord The rest of the nervous system are the pulmonary nerves The neurotransmitters are the messengers in between nerves by carrying their signals to other neurons - The brain 1) Reptilian brain, ancient part of the brain, it includes hindbrain and midbrain Reflexive responses and arousal 2) Old mammalian brain the fore brain Hypothalamus / limbic system Emotions and learning 3) New mammalian brain the fore brain Cerebrum Capacity for complex thoughts Meta cognitive processes - Fore brain 1) Hypothalamus Regulation of basic biological drives related to the four F’s Control of hunger, thirst, sex, body and temperature 2) Limbic system Pleasure centers, center of emotion, memory, motivation Amygdala is emotion Hippocampus is memory 3) Cerebrum 4 Lobes of cerebral Cortex Higher thoughts, meta cognition  1) The brain has some interesting structures. Neo cortex: is the specialized part of the brain unique to humans, it is the outer layer surrounding the cerebrum. Prefrontal cortex: controls attention, the ability to self reflect, problem solving, self regulation. It controls determination. It is part of the frontal lobe. 2) The cerebral cortex is divided to 4 main lobes, lobes are separated by fissures Frontal lobe, motor cortex Parietal lobe, somatosensory cortex. Pain, temperatures and other sensations. Temporal lobe, auditory cortex Occipital lobe, your visual cortex 3) Left and right hemisphere: the corpus callosum connects both sides. The left is a little bigger and longer than the right. The left is responsible for analytic thought, logic/rational, language based (reading and writing included), math and science. The left side thinks in a linear fashion, like 1234. Past present future. It is responsible for verbal communication. The right side is full picture thoughts meaning holistic thoughts, intuition, spatial awareness, creativity, emotions, art and music. It is responsible for nonverbal communication. It thinks in 3d spatial structure. Note: These are gross simplifications, both sides always work together unless injury or exceptional cases. - The peripheral nervous system 1) Somatic, it does basic physiological tasks, such as movement, sensors. Muscle control Can be voluntary 2) Automatic, responsive reactions such as fight or flight response. Connects to internal organs It is involuntary Regulates stress response Note these slides can probably be on the test!  Chapter 4 The difference between sensation and perception 1) Sensation: is based on activity of the sense receptors that fire signals upon experiencing subtle changes or exposures. Sensation takes place first at sensory organs such as pain receptors or light receptors To put simply physical energy is transformed into neural impulses For example light (wavelengths of electromagnetic energy) hits the retina which is then transformed into sight by the brain. 2) Perception: is an elaboration, transformation, interpretation of what is registered by the senses. Perception takes place in the brain processing. It assigns meaning to sensory experiences. Makes an incomplete picture complete based on prior experiences and fills in the gaps. Perception is our mechanism to predict future events and to make sense of the world 3) Bottom up vs top down processing. A predictive processing machine Top down is most of our experiences in life, like the process of perception through visual sensors. But the start of sensation is bottom up, you have to first take in information before you can work with the information Bottom up is sensation, top down is perception. 4) Top down would be: first formulate hypothesis about stimulus as a whole Then select and examine features to check hypothesis And finally recognize stimulus 5) Bottom up processing would be: Detect specific features of stimulus Then combine specific features into more complex forms And finally recognize stimulus Interpretation of perception and sensation. 1) Sensory restrictions:if the development of eyes are restricted during early childhood of an organism such as being blindfolded since birth, will cause the organism to have trouble processing visual inputs, such as depth shapes, horizontal and vertical lines. One example of this that happens naturally is cataract For sensory organs to develop properly you need both nature (natural genetics) and nurture (sensory experience and perception experience) 2) Perceptual sets: perception is influenced by beliefs, needs, and expectations. Context effects also influence perception, such as a set in a movie. Contrast effects are the fact that feelings and perception are relative, previous experiences can change the effect of future experiences in how they feel or are perceived. I.E, if you text your tone is not clear and if the person who reads it for example is angry might read the text as being mean and rude.  Chapter 5 Model of the mind: what is the nature of your mind? 1) Conscious awareness is the tip of the iceberg It starts at the conscious level which is controlled and sequential Preconscious: stored knowledge that can be easily accessed Subconscious: simultaneous, automatic processing of sights, sounds, sensations and underlying experiences. These sensation can make it to the conscious Freud’s unconscious: repressed memories, impulses that are difficult to retrieve, sometimes accessible in dreams Non-conscious: physiological processes that are not available to awareness but can be influenced by the conscious intent, example can be heart rate which varies throughout different experiences. Meta-cognition: the awareness of being conscious and questioning your own thoughts Note: The mind and the body are one and they are interdependent. 2) Circadian Rhythm: body’s natural clock which is influenced by the day and night cycle Clock is adjusted by light (the Sun) Receptors in the retina send input to hypothalamus Small structure in the hypothalamus sends signals to the pineal gland This process leads to the secretion of melatonin which regulates sleep Note: changes to this biological clock are possible both consciously or unconsciously 3) Sleep cycles have 4 main stages Stage N1: has small, irregular brain waves (Theta waves), this is light sleep 1-7 min long. Also we see hypnic jerks Stage N2: Spindle shaped waves, 10 - 25 min long. May involve some dreaming Stage N3: deep sleep with large slow (delta waves), 30 min long, last longer in the first cycle of the night. Sleepwalking and night terrors occur REM sleep: brain activity is similar to ordinary wakefulness (Beta Waves). When most dreams occur, they get longer at later cycles of the night.  1) Paradoxical REM sleep factors: Heart rate and arousal are increased Brain activity resembles alert state Major muscle groups inhibited Sleep paralysis happens in rem sleep Note: We go through 4 to 6 sleep cycles on a regular night. Sleep and dreams Most dreams are negative experiences rather than positive.  1) Freud’s perception of dreams: Dreams are the road to the unconscious, meaning unconscious thoughts sometimes present themselves in a dream. Wish fulfillment theory: Dreams express unconscious motives and desires/ wishes. These feelings are usually the underlying theme of a manifested story to keep the ego safe. 2) Criticism of Jung for freud’s theories: Yung did agree that dreams portray what the ego does not know But dreams also reflect issues around human existence (both personal and collective unconscious) These dreams can serve the purpose of self realization and reconciliation. Cool Note: the collective unconscious is very rich and it is from both cultural and evolutionary experiences of humanity, these can be stories of heroes or the fear of the shadow! 3) Problem solving view of dreams Dreams reflect an attempt to solve problems in the waking life 4) Biological view of dreams Dreams are a mechanism of the body called Activation-synthesis model Dreams are the by-product of random neural firing emerging from deep (subcortical) areas of the brain To put simply the cortex constructs a story to make sense of internal signals from the lower brain 5) How much sleep do we need? Adults should get 7-9 hours a day Children 9-11 hours a day Adolescents 8.5-9.5 hours a day 1) Chronic sleep disturbances This can be associated with many medical conditions such as obesity, diabetes, high blood pressure, stroke and many more! Your immune system can be weekend or even compromised 2) Sleep deprivation, which can lead to many issues Impaired concentration and cognitive performance Emotional centers of the brain become more reactive, like mood problems such as aggression and irritability. 3) Why is it that we need sleep? It is necessary to maintain a healthy brian, the brain cleans itself by repairing cells It also replenishes energy storage Neurogenesis can occur which is new neurons are grown Sleep also helps with memory, learning, maintaining psychological health, and regulating mood. 4) Some sleep tips for a successful sleep routine Develop a consistent sleep bedtime and wake up time. Reduction of screen time, specially 1 hour before bedtime Don't stay awake in bed for more than 20 mins, get up, walk around, read or listen to something then go back to bed.  Drugs, my favorite! that's a joke I swear! 1) Drugs classification Alcohol Marijuana/ cannabinoids Stimulants such as cocaine Hallucinogens like ecstasy, acid, aka LSD Narcotics like opiates Note: you don't have to memorize everything on this chart but it's good to know! opiates/ narcotics Are all from opium plant They used to be widely prescribed in hospitals and for those with debilitating pain, because it's the best drug for pain relief, both physical and psychological pain like emotional pain Opiates such as fentanyl and carfentanil are very highly potent and are responsible for many overdose deaths Lot of potential for abuse and addiction They suppresses and slows down the nervous system, at high doses it will stop the respiratory system leading to death by asphyxiation Sedatives like benzo’s Even more addictive than narcotics Can lead to convulsions that can be very life threatening Highly physically addictive and can have many withdraw symptoms like convulsions Great for anxiety and are often prescribed by medical professionals Stimulants like cocaine and crystal meth. Also caffeine and nicotine Often fast acting and hit dopamine receptors directly and rapidly They also have a heavy crash Generally used for a boost of energy and focus to combat fatigue Hallucinogens like psilocybin and LSD They radically change sensory awareness and cause altered perception Often can cause something called a bad trip There is new medical use in psychotherapy use for PTSD and depression Cannabinoids like mary jane (marijuana) THC is the main compounds involved in the high Medical use for pain relief and anti nausea, specially involved in chemotherapy patients About 10% of users experience psychological dependence Alcohol by far the worst drug Some consider it as a sedative however we will study it as its own category Reduction in inhibition which is the main reason people use it It is a depressant drug and will slow down the nervous system as well as motor coordination (Cerebellum). By and large causes the most harm in the society by ratio, considering accidents, impaired driving, over does, and long term health related issues. Alcohol is also linked to violant crimes such as rape and domestic violance Major complications with chronic use which lead to physical and emotional withdrawal symptoms as well as many health complications like cancer and cardiovascular disease Note: Alcohol slows down brain activity which is where it becomes dangerous which can lead to an individual to fall unconscious, which in extreme cases can lead to death. Note: Psychoactive substances: any substance that modify mental, emotional or behavioral functioning NOTE: Blood alcohol content (BAC) is the method of measuring intoxication levels of alcohol.  1) Addiction and symptoms of drug dependance the 4 C’s Cravings Lack of control over the substance, often taking more than they intended Compulsive use, unable to stop or cut back Continued use despite of negative consequences like failing to meet role obligations This all leads to the build of tolerance which then will often lead to withdrawal symptoms 2) THC the main ingredient in marijuana It is considered a mild hallucinogen It amplifies senses Has an mild euphoria and relaxation effect on the user CBD has no psychoactive effects and only has some sedative and anti inflammatory effects Chronic use or abuse of Mary Jane can lead to negative side effects on memory and attention. It also reduces cognitive performance Note: one dangerous side effect of marijuana is that it can lead to early onset psychosis in those who are vulnerable to psychotic disorders. 3) Crack cocaine Very powerful stimulants. It activates the reward centers, the dopamine receptors It is highly addictive and is often mixed with other drugs Very expensive which is why it is not as abused as other drugs. Since it is expensive it is sometimes laced with other drugs like fentanyl which can lead to overdose 4) Psychedelics (hallucinogens) Drugs like psilocybin (mushrooms), LSD, DMT, Ayahuasca, Mescaline It leads to hallucinations, perceptual distortions, mystical experiences, and even changes to sensory perceptions such as colors and sounds It can have some potential benefits in psychotherapeutic use for illnesses such as PTSD and depression for some individuals Note: MDMA (ecstasy, molly) is both a stimulant (like amphetamines) and a hallucinogen. Effects are euphoria, energy, emotional bonding and empathy, it also leads to release of oxytocin within the body Note: MDMA has severe negative effects on serotonin pathways and impairments in memory, mood and personality. 5) Narcotics or opiates Delivered from opium plant and is mainly used for pain relief This category includes heroin, morphine, codeine, oxycontin, and fentanyl opioid crisis refers to the mass use of opioids, specifically oxycontin which was wildly prescribed.  1) Factors in drug abuse and addiction Physiological effect on reward centers, specifically the mesolimbic dopamine pathway Biological predisposition, this is usually genetic bases for being more prone to drug abuse. These genetic factors account for 50% more vulnerability to addiction Psychological factors like depression, anxiety and self-medication Social factors like accessibility, friends and family that use substances, social norms such as celebration with alcohol. Note: just a reminder cocaine is from plants unlike most other sedative/ amphetamines that are synthetic Hypnosis Definition of hypnosis: Systematic procedure that typically produces a heightened state of suggestibility. Susceptibility: the degree to which an individual is vulnerable or open to being affected, or influences by hypnotic procedure Standard hypnotic susceptibility scale: a scale created to measure the populations susceptibility to hypnotic influence Note: hypnotic susceptibility varies significantly from person to person and it is normally distributed amongst the population with about 10% of people being at each extreme end of the scale, some being highly susceptible while others have strong resistance to hypnotic influence. 1) Hypnotic susceptibility traits. You are more susceptible if you have high levels of the following Absorption (how well you can fall into focus or trans) Imaginativeness Rich fantasy life. 2) What hypnosis can do and whats its used for Hypnosis is widely used to alleviate pain Sensory distortions also can happen under hypnosis Can even be used to treat hypertension, migraines, and even allergies 3) What hypnotists can't do? Age regression and regression into past lives! Making people actually act against their will Recovering lost memories, it's interesting to note, that it is possible to recover some memories under hypnosis but the memory is often distorted or unreliable.  - Theories of hypnosis 1) Role enactment theory states that: Hypnosis is a normal mental state in which suggestible people are acting out the role of someone who is hypnotized 2) Hypnosis as an altered state theory states: Hypnosis is a special state of consciousness Changes in brain activity recorded by EEG Dissociation: split in consciousness, conscious awareness can become separate from other sensory processes or perception Note: Mind wandering is the spontaneous shift of attention away from a task or external environment toward unrelated thoughts or internal reflections often akin to a dream. We mind wander about 50% of the time! 3) Unification theory States that both role enactment and hypnosis as an altered state theories are partially true Hypnosis = Alterations in consciousness do exist but they are also influenced by role expectations. Meditation Definition of meditation: meditation is a group of practices that train our attention to heighten awareness and bring mental processes under a greater voluntary control! 1) Different meditation practices Focused attention: The ability to control or anchor your attention into a particular point of focus. seen in Zen and transcendental meditation Open monitoring: Monitoring your thoughts and seeing where your mind goes. Seen in mindfulness and loving-kindness meditation 2) Benefits of meditation Memory retention Better control over attention Potential boost to emotional and physical health It even has positive psychological effects such as trauma recovery  1) Evidences of the benefits of meditation Training for better control on executive functions. This is supported by evidence found from brain imaging studies. EEG studies have shown an increase in alpha (calm relaxed state) and theta (stage N1) brian patterns leading to more relaxation and calmness Physiological evidence related to lower stress response and greater pain tolerance Long term gains can be found in cognitive performance Lower rates of emotional distress and mood disorders Physical health benefits such as lower chance of developing cardiovascular disease 2) Influential and mainstream applications for mental and physical health through meditation The benefits of meditation has been endorsed by famous figures and almost all health professionals It has gained massive popularity in self-help Note: this is a review for brain waves and their time of activity Note that there is going to be a question about this on the test! Note: reminder that rebound effect for sleep happens when individuals are missing certain sleep stages, if an individuals had not gotten stage1 sleep in a long time because of external conditions, in the absence of those conditions the individual would have an abnormally longer stage1 sleep to compensate or rebound, this can happen to any stage of sleep!  Chapter 6 Learning/ conditioning Note: don't worry about the information given in graphs and charts in the book Learning is a relatively a permanent (durable) change in behaviors that results from experience Note: Learning is not an automatic process! It requires attention. Learning is conditioning and happens over the span of one’s life 1) There are three stages of learning, you need to know the name of people and their respective theory of learning. Classical conditioning (Pavlov and Watson): this is based on behavioral theory of psychology so it is built upon stimuli and response, strictly scientific. Operant conditioning (Skinner): based also on behavioral theory of psychology and it is built upon reward and punishment governing behavior. Observational learning (Bandura): human acquisition of behavior through observation. Note: as an example you can see classical conditioning being used in marketing and advertising to build positive association 2) Pavlov experiments with dogs in classical conditioning and components of classical conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Food will always lead to a positive response in a hungry dog. This is unconditioned meaning you don't need to learn, you just do it! Unconditioned responses (UCR) a dog will salivate when it sees food, this is not learned. Conditioned Stimulus (CS) this is the tone that Pavlov had conditioned the dogs to associate with food Conditioned Response (CR) the dog salivating when it hears the tone that Pavlov played, this is a learned response Note: this needs to happen in order! If you presented the tone after the dog already ate it will not be conditioned to salivate when hearing the tone Note: there often is a ideal window of time to present the conditioned stimulus in order for the organism to associated it with the desired conditioned response Note: classical conditioning can be reversed to get the opposite response  1) Little albert (watson’s famous case of classical and operant conditioning) An infant was conditioned to be afraid of furry objects and animals by associating a loud noise with the object and animals. He was specifically scared most of white furry objects This led to the Two-process theory of phobic reactions phobias are initially acquired through classical conditioning and then maintained through operant conditioning Note: operant conditioning of avoidance reinforced itself (reward or reduction in anxiety for avoiding phobic stimuli). The fear gets stronger through avoidance! The more you avoid your fear the bigger the fear gets. Note: even tho many people have phobias only 10% of them actually seek help to relieve that phobia 2) Many phobias can be cured effectively and quickly Exposure therapy: therapist provides skills necessary for relaxed and effective coping i the presence of the feared object You have to literally face your fears in order to no longer fear your phobia Other learning conditionings Note: many ideas of conditioning are based on behavioral school of thought (behaviorism) in psychology Note: Theoretically these Models of conditioning can explain pretty much everything that we do. This is also based on behaviorism. 1) Operant conditioning by Skinner: Reward and punishment. The anticipation of reward or punishment. This is how we get motivated to do things Skinner law of effect: rewarded behavior is more likely to occur again Reinforcement: something that follows a response and makes it more likely to occur again. It can also be understood as the anticipated consequences of one’s behaviors (what you expect, will happen) Note: just because a behavior is reinforced it does not mean it is a positive behavior it can also be a negative behavior or reinforcement. These positive and negative types of reinforcements are adaptive and maladaptive, respectively.  1) Lets distinguish Classical conditioning (CC) and operant conditioning (OC) OC shapes behaviors through their consequences CC is controlled by stimuli that proceed responses. We see CC in reflexive responses 2) Types of Reinforcements, Know all of these! Primary reinforcers directly influence biological needs These include: food, warmth, safety, removal of pain, love, affection, and much more Secondary reinforcers are things that indirectly influence biological needs. Secondary reinforcers are learned and acquired These include: psychological needs, money, fame, attention, and much more Positive reinforcement: the response is followed by a rewarding stimulus (consequence) Negative reinforcement: the response is followed by a removal of an adverse stimulus (avoidance). Relief through avoidance (like distractions). Intermittent reinforcement is the delivery of a reward at irregular intervals. Like the experience of gambling in a casino, because of the possibility of a reward. This is a very powerful type of reinforcement Note reinforcements always increase a response no matter if they are positive, negative, or other. Note: a cool example of negative reinforcement is the annoying seatbelt noise which reinforces your to wear your seatbelt. 2) Punishment: meant to decrease a response. Often inflicting pain, both physical or emotional. Negative consequences following undesirable behavior Punishment has drawbacks when used in isolation and it also has future side effects such as aggression. Note: instead of physical or painful punishments we can instead remove privileges with an explanation. It can be a extremely powerful reinforcers specially used alongside positive reinforcement  1) Self-guided behavioral modification. An attempt to change learnt behavior. Identify which behavior(s) to change. Be concrete. You want it to be personalized Monitor your current habits. Count/ monitor on a daily basis. Measure the consistency of the behavior. A baseline measure Take a look at your triggers and consequences. Determine personally meaningful reinforcements / punishments. Begin your program. The goal is to increase or decrease a specific behaviors by manipulating situations and reward/punishment contingencies Continue to track on a daily basis: keep records of changes, modify your plan if you aren't getting results Enlist in social support if needed in case for example the program continues failing. Note: The program will only work if you can make the alternative behavior more rewarding. For example you can do this by treating yourself with some reward after studying longer than before 2) Observational learning by bandura experiments He had 3-5 year old children in 4 separate experimental conditions for his experiment: 1: live, aggressive model 2: filmed, aggressive model through TV 3: cartoons with aggressive acts 4: controlled condition, no exposure to aggression. The results were that groups 1,2, and 3 showed significantly greater numbers of acts of aggression. Compared to the controlled group So therefore through the bandura bobo-doll experiments proved behaviors can be learned through observation and imitation. Note: applications of observational learning can be seen in media violence, television, cinema, and prosocial models. Cool note: apes also learn through observational learning by using mirror neurons Note: mirror neurons are the neural basis of imitation, they can fire when you see someone else do something you could do.  Memory 1) There are three memory systems Sensory memory Short term memory Long term memory Note: this is the summary of the structure of the memory systems 2) Sensory memory. Very short Stores a perfect picture of the world, but for a fraction of a second This memory decays very quickly 2 main systems: iconic (visual) and Echoic (auditory) Sperling’s studies 3) Sperling's studies proved that sensory memory is very short lived The participants saw a display of letters on a screen for a brief exposure, then they were asked what they saw, the participants couldn't remember it well. However it was concluded that the memory information was available to the participants but it would decay quickly For example if a tone was presented immediately after the experiment it helped them remember the sensory information for longer period of time Note: sperling’s studies established a capacity and a duration for sensory memory Note: so sensory memory sends information to short-term and then from short-term to long-term.  1) From sensory to short-term memory Implicit memories (which are automatic memory processing). Implicit memories require no effort to store in short-term memory. They happen automatically Explicit memories (which take effortful processing. Explicit memory requires effort and attention to be transferred to short-term memory. They often don't happen automatically 2) Short-term memory: limited storage / capacity The Magic number: 7 (+ or - 2). Our short term memory storage and how many numbers we can remember. But in present the new estimate for short term memory is 4 (+ or - 1) Short-term memory is semi-permanent. Information is lost after 20-30 seconds unless it is rehearsed Distinguish form: working memory capacity (WMC) which is the ability to hold and manipulate information in conscious attention with intent. Note: WMC is probably the best way to move information from short-term to long-term memory Note: WMC also presents itself when we are problem solving like math equations. 3) The processing of working memory capacity. Phonological loop: just the repeating of the pattern to try and keep it in short-term memory Central executive: relating past memories to the presented short-term memory through making connections to previous memories. Visuospatial sketchpad: which is using visuals, images, 3d spaces, or an actual location to try and link memories so it will be remembered. Episodic buffer: Integrates the information from the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and long-term memory to create a complete representation of an event or experience. Types of encoding: remember this Note: shallow processing (structural) often is forgotten fast, and deep processing memory lasts much longer. So if you attach meaning to memories you will remember the memory better 1) Long-term memory: unlimited storage. Retrieval and encoding determine if information will be remembered. The type of encoding determines the effectiveness of how well you can recall information self-referent encoding (self-schema): when you make information relevant to yourself or personal you remember it better. Imagery: using visual cues or creating images to remember information better Mnemonics: mental strategy to remember things, one great example is the mind palace. Another example is method of loci (which is linking real objects to memories) Acronyms is another example of mnemonics Chunking: which is grouping information to remember it better Time and spacing effects: the more time and intervals you spend on information the better you remember it Organizing information hierarchically: which is putting organizing information on levels relative to each other Note: Self-referential encoding is always at the forefront of our stream of consciousness  Memory part 2 1) Long-term memory: is knowledge that can be stored indefinitely. To our understanding there is no limit to the storage of long-term memory. long-term memory stores information about yourself such as your name, first day of uni, memories of your family, your likes and dislikes. These are called episodic memory. Long-term memory also includes information from the world such as fact, general knowledge, where you are and more. These are called semantic memory. Long-term memory also stores information on how to do things, such as driving, brushing your teeth and riding a bike. Called non declarative memory. 2) There are two types of memory systems declarative memory (explicit and factual memory) Procedural memory or nondeclarative memory (implicit memory) 3) Declarative memory or explicit memory: is based on factual information. These memories are verbally transmittable. Declarative memory can easily be sated There are two types of explicit memory: episodic and semantic Episodic memory system: it's like an autobiography of your life. It's all the information of who you are. Part of the self referential memory (self memory). It is also dated, and there is a sense of time Semantic memory system: is knowledge acquired throughout life. Not really dated or a sense of time. Like facts, definitions, names, dates, and concepts. Declarative memory and referential memory are highly reliant on the hippocampus to form 4) Procedural memory or nondeclarative memory: is based on implicit memory. They are action based. These memories are often non verbal These memories are often actions, skills, operations and conditioned responses. Often learned, and not specific to one region of the brain 1) Anterograde amnesia: the case of Henry Molaison (H.M). he lost his hippocampus Impaired episodic and explicit memory Could not form any more long-term memory He had an intact semantic memory. Information that was stored and he could access but he could not add to it He also had an intact procedural memory. He was able to learn new skills without knowing. 2) Why do we forget? Ineffective encoding: the information is not properly processed in the short-term memory. Therefore it never makes it to long-term memory. This usually happens because of a lack of attention. Decay of memory: physiological basis for memory loss. Information is slowly lost overtime. Retrieval failure: the information is there, it is just not properly accessed. This can be because it was not encoded properly or mental blocks that could happen because of stress. Interference: information encoding and retrieval can be interrupted if there are distractions. 3) There are two types of interferences in regards to memory Retroactive: when new information causes someone to forget old information Proactive when old information causes someone to forget new information  Chapter 8 Note: there will be a test on application section of chapter 8 1) The cognitive revolution Cognitive psychologists studied reasoning, judgments, decision making, and problem solving Cognitive psychotherapy focuses on maladaptive thought patterns and their implication for emotional well-being. You must become the master of your own thinking. This is the only way you will realize freedom and joy. 2) Applications of cognitive distortions Magnification and minimization: dwelling on the negative and discounting the positive. Focusing on the negative and ignoring the positive. This is believed to be an adaptive and evolutionary trait. Overgeneralization: Viewing a negative event as a never-ending pattern of defeat Reasoning from how you feel: like I feel like an idiot therefore I must be one! Personalization: Taking blame for events that are unintended or beyond your control. It's my fault that this happened! Mind reading: Imagining what someone is thinking about you or what you did. Often without direct evidence. Also called projection! 3) How do we know what we know? Authority: people relied on authority for knowledge, historically found in religion like the authority of the word of god, but authority could also be parental or institutional. Reason: Reason is considered by renaissance scholars to be the most reliable source of knowledge. This is when authority shifted from religion and kings to science. This was a revolution. Deductive reasoning: Drawing an inference from a general premise to a specific conclusion. I think therefore I am Inductive reasoning: it is a mental process that involves using past experiences or knowledge to make predictions or generalizations. 1) Deductive reasoning: a cognitive process that involves using general ideas or premises to reach a specific conclusion Premises from which conclusions are drawn must also be true. Example is my dad said I was an idiot; I feel like an idiot; therefore, I am an idiot. confirmation bias: which is when we tend to judge a premise as true with those conclusions that we agree with. Everyone does this to an extent and it is a form of ignorance. To better understand these concepts here is the example provided  1) Inductive reasoning which is a mental process that involves using past experiences or knowledge to make predictions or generalizations The problem solver goes from particular to the general. It is the typical process in science. Based on hypothesis on limited evidence, and test it against other evidence. One example of inductive reasoning is like can you supply the missing number below? 1, 3, 4, 7, _ 5, 9, 13, _, 21 Some analogies are like Carpenter: house. Star: constellation Note: the point of Inductive reasoning and what it tries to do is to find a pattern. Trying to find relations and recognize patterns 2) Problem solving. It is our approach to solving problems. Means-end analysis: it is clarifying. A strategy in which an end goal is identified and then fulfilled via the generation of subgoals and action plans that help overcome obstacles encountered along the way. Like What is the initial state? What is the goal state? What are the specific sub problems? So you divide the task into smaller tasks and an end task! Mental sets: A representation of how to solve a problem. An early thought process on how to solve a problem. These can be helpful and give you a hint. This process is often based on old habits of problem solving. Stress leads to fixation: Stress often inhibits the creativity needed for problem solving and makes you often not be able to think of new ways or solutions. This can lead to functional fixedness. Facilitation: letting go of rational and logical problem solving. For some problems your mind solves the problem when you are not actively thinking about it. This even happens when you are dreaming and you might find a solution in a dream. This is good for finding solutions that are not as obvious and the pattern is hard to see. Incubation/ take a break! Note: Functional fixedness is when often under stress we use the object only in a traditional way. We fail to be creative and find a new way to use the object  - Judgment and decision making Judgment: Processes by which we form opinions, reach conclusions, and make evaluations of people or events! 1) Biases in making judgments. Overconfidence effect: Can lead to a false sense of certainty. People tend to overestimate their abilities. Like not applying the base rates to yourself and thinking you can do something only 1% of the population can, like joining NHL Availability heuristic: it is estimating the probability or the ease of coming up with an accurate example. It is basically guessing. Representativeness heuristic: The shortcut of basing a probability on the similarity with a prototype. Basically judging a person based on the common factors we see around them, like if 10 of your friends got the flu, this 1 guy must have it too! Conjunction fallacy: The idea that we tend to think or judge that a person fits well with two different groups or factors, and that it is more likely that a conjunction of two possible events is more likely than one alone. This is often not true mathematically. Ex. is a person that is interested in teaching more likely to be a teacher and a couch at the same time? Alternative outcomes effect: The perceived likelihood of a certain outcome is influenced by the distribution of alternative outcomes. This is often how we estimate our sense of risk or fear. So in other words your estimation of your level of risk is influenced by other outcomes of the situation, like what is the outcome for you vs for a business vs for others? Who gets it worse? This is also called theory of bounded rationality Framing: Decisions are heavily influenced by the way in which a question is asked. Example is Like will you undergo a particular surgery if: a) you have 90% chance of recovery, or b) you have 10% chance of death! Note: Heuristics are the process by which humans use mental shortcuts to arrive at decisions 2) Thinking critically: the ability to make objective judgments on the basis of well supported evidence and reasons. Now what can we do to improve? We should try and remember common pitfalls, predictable mistakes that everybody makes. We should define terms concretely Examine the evidence from the other side. This is to combat confirmation bias. In general try and be aware of your biases. Avoid emotional reasoning and avoid simplistic explanations  Chapter 9 Note: There is no universal definition for intelligence 1) However there are some commonly accepted definitions Intelligence is the ability to reason and solve problems. It is to think abstractly and comprehend complex ideas. It is to learn quickly and be articulate about what you know. 2) Methods of intelligence assessment Binet (1905) French guy. The initial intelligence measure which was widely adopted. Was adopted in Stanford-binet: was adapted/updated later by Terman in 1916. IQ Intelligence quotient. Was originally a formula created to predict children mental age for their future academic performance The formula was IQ = Mental age/chronological age x 100 Note: Wechsler created the adult intelligence scale and revised the IQ test referred to as (WAIS-R). This is what we use now! IQ is fairly normally distributed among the population. Most people about 65% fall within the mean (the average). Note: one standard deviation is 15 points from the mean which is 100 Note: The word retarded is no longer used to reflect individuals with low intelligence, The proper term is intellectual disability. 1) There are many different theories of intelligence and how to measure it, know the people! General factor theory by Spearman. The idea that there is one General innate ability which bases all other intellectual abilities. Intelligence is a unitary attribute. The general ability that underlies specific skills is called the g factor Theories of multiple intelligences by Sternberg. There are three types of intelligences that are interrelated. Analytic (Academic): Logical, abstract, judgment, and long chains of reasoning. Creative: involves the ability to generate new ideas and to be inventive in dealing with novel problems. Practical: involves the ability to deal effectively with the kinds of problems people encounter in everyday life and adapt, such as on the job or at home. A big part of practical intelligence involves acquiring tacit knowledge Gardner’s eight intelligences: Logical / mathematical: The capacity to discern, logical or numerical patterns, also to handle long chains of reasoning Linguistic: Sensitivity to sounds, rhythms, and meanings of words. As Well as the different functions of language Musical: Ability to produce and appreciate rhythms, pitch and timbre Spatial: Ability to perceive the visual-spatial world accurately and to perform transformation on one’s initial perception Bodily kinesthetic (athleticism): The ability to control one’s own body movement. Interpersonal (emotional intelligence) Reading other people emotion and properly responding Intrapersonal: reading yourself and your own emotions Neutristic: The ability to recognize and categorize objects, nature, and the world around us. Emotional intelligence (EQ): It includes many important components of success in life. Self-awareness, self-regulation, empathy, people skills, and motivation. The ability to perceive and express emotion, and understand its impact on functioning. EQ predicted work performance better than IQ, Daniel goleman wrote a book about this.  1) Assessment of intelligence Measure using WAIS-R (the fifth version): A well validated assessment of intelligence for adults and children Originated from tests measuring scholastic aptitude (academic performance ability) A narrow definition of intelligence: Analytic intelligence, problem solving ability, numerical and spatial skills, working memory, and comprehension Does not measure creativity or EQ. 2) Intellectual disability, scores lower than 70 usually are considered to have levels of intellectual disability. There are different levels of this Note: about 80% of those who have intellectual disability fall within the mild category 3) Genetic determinants of intelligence Genetics are a key factor in intelligence It accounts for about 50-70% of variation in IQ within a population. Genetic Overlap and IQ similarity can be seen in identical twins. Note: Identical twins were studied extensively to determine the influence of genetics on intelligence. A correlation of 0.85 was found between twins IQ tests, Very HIGH correlation! Note: Reaction Range refers to genetically determined limits on IQ. This limit exists as both the highest potential and the lowest potential for IQ, this is influenced mainly by the environment, nurture.  1) Environmental determinants of intelligence Socioeconimics have generally the largest impact out of the environmental determinants. More resources, more support, more encouragement, and many other privileges. Nutrients, food, and even negative factors such as lead poisoning can affect intelligence Social network such as family and friends can also impact intelligence 2) Effects of schooling on IQ The amount of years one spends in school positively relates to IQ and income Intelligence tends to grow more the more time one spends studying. This is called a bi-directional effect, meaning schooling raises IQ Note: In general IQ tests are an exceptionally reliable form of testing intelligence.