Psychology Notes PDF

Psychological Conditions: ​ Psychosis: A severe mental disorder where thought and emotions are so impaired that contact with reality is lost. ​ Delirium: A sudden and severe confusion due to rapid changes in brain function. ​ Convulsions: Sudden, irregular movements of the body cause...

Psychological Conditions: ​ Psychosis: A severe mental disorder where thought and emotions are so impaired that contact with reality is lost. ​ Delirium: A sudden and severe confusion due to rapid changes in brain function. ​ Convulsions: Sudden, irregular movements of the body caused by involuntary contraction of muscles, often associated with epilepsy or brain disorders. ​ Epilepsy and Seizures: A neurological disorder marked by recurrent seizures, which are sudden bursts of electrical activity in the brain. ​ Dementia: A chronic disorder characterized by a decline in cognitive function, memory, and reasoning. ​ Huntington’s Disease: A hereditary disorder causing the progressive breakdown of nerve cells in the brain. ​ Tourette’s Syndrome: A neurological disorder involving repetitive movements or unwanted sounds (tics). ​ Extreme Paranoia: An irrational and persistent feeling of being persecuted or in danger. ​ "Trance" States: Altered states of consciousness, often associated with meditation, hypnosis, or dissociation. ​ "Fugu" States: Rare, near-death conditions often related to neurotoxic poisoning. The Four Humors and Personality Types: 1.​ Sanguine (Blood): ○​ Traits: Arrogant, indulgent. ○​ Element: Air. ○​ Season: Spring. 2.​ Phlegmatic (Phlegm): ○​ Traits: Calm, unemotional. ○​ Element: Water. ○​ Season: Winter. 3.​ Choleric (Yellow Bile): ○​ Traits: Ambitious, energetic. ○​ Element: Fire. ○​ Season: Summer. 4.​ Melancholic (Black Bile): ○​ Traits: Thoughtful, pondering, depressed/dysthymic.  ○​ Element: Earth. ○​ Season: Autumn. Mesmerism: ​ Definition: A precursor to hypnosis, also called "magnétisme animal," involving the manipulation of magnetic fluids. ​ Hypnosis: An altered state of consciousness distinct from waking, enabling access to the unconscious (Freud considered hypnosis the "Royal Road to the Unconscious"). Psychological Theories: 1.​ Structuralism (Wundt and Titchener): ○​ Focus on the basic elements and structures of mental life through introspection. 2.​ Functionalism (James): ○​ Examines the functions of the mind and its adaptability. ○​ Emphasizes fluidity and flexibility of thought ("stream of consciousness"). The Seven Psychological Approaches: 1.​ Behavioral Neurosciences: ○​ Studies brain and nervous system centrality to behavior. 2.​ Evolutionary Psychology: ○​ Focuses on adaptation, reproduction, and survival of the fittest. 3.​ Cognitive Psychology: ○​ Examines mental processes like memory, perception, and problem-solving. 4.​ Psychodynamic Psychology: ○​ Centers on unconscious processes and their influence on behavior. 5.​ Humanistic Psychology: ○​ Stresses personal growth, self-actualization, and intrinsic value. 6.​ Sociocultural Psychology: ○​ Explores how social and cultural contexts influence behavior. 7.​ Behavioral Psychology: ○​ Investigates observable behavior and environmental determinants. Freud’s Psychodynamic Perspective: ​ Components of Personality:  1.​ Id: Instincts, immediate gratification, pleasure principle. 2.​ Ego: Reality principle, balances id and superego. 3.​ Superego: Morality and societal rules. ​ Defense Mechanisms: 1.​ Rationalization, Projection, Repression. ​ Personality Development Stages: 1.​ Oral (0-18 months). 2.​ Anal (18-36 months). 3.​ Phallic (3-6 years): Includes Oedipus/Electra complex and "Penis Envy." 4.​ Latency (6 years to puberty). 5.​ Genital (Adolescence to adulthood). ​ Concept of Libido: Sexual energy, analogous to "Mojo." Hysteria: ​ Neurological symptoms without a physiological basis. ○​ Examples: Hysterical paralysis, blindness, anesthesia. Parapraxis (Freudian Slip): ​ An error reflective of unconscious processes, not just a simple mistake. Behaviorism (Watson and Skinner): ​ Emphasizes observable, testable behavior. ​ Key Concepts: Conditioning, reinforcement, learning. Cognitive Social Theory (Bandura and Mischel): ​ Interaction between cognition, environment, and behavior. ​ Includes modeling, role theory, and locus of control (internal vs. external). Humanistic Psychology (Carl Rogers): ​ Core Principles: ○​ Unconditional positive regard. ○​ Empathy. ○​ Genuineness. ​ Linked to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. Trait Theories (Hans Eysenck):  ​ Personality dimensions: ○​ Introversion vs. Extroversion. ○​ Stability vs. Neuroticism. ○​ Psychoticism. Abnormal Behavior: ​ Deviant: Unusual or deviating from norms. ​ Maladaptive: Harmful to self or others. ​ Dangerous: Poses a risk. ​ Any combination of these factors. Psychology: Key Concepts and Definitions Freudian Thinking ​ Psychoanalysis: ○​ Developed by Sigmund Freud, focuses on unconscious processes influencing behavior. ​ Id, Ego, and Superego: ○​ Id: The primitive part of the mind driven by instincts and desires. ​ Example: Acting impulsively to satisfy hunger. ○​ Ego: The rational part that mediates between the id and reality. ​ Example: Planning to eat later during a break. ○​ Superego: Represents moral standards and values. ​ Example: Feeling guilty for overeating. ​ Defense Mechanisms: ○​ Strategies used by the ego to protect against anxiety. ○​ Rationalization: Justifying behaviors or feelings. ​ Example: "I needed the snack because I’ve been working hard." ○​ Projection: Attributing one’s feelings to others. ​ Example: Believing someone else is angry when you are. ○​ Repression: Blocking distressing memories or feelings. ​ Example: Forgetting a traumatic childhood event. Ethics in Research ​ Core Principles: ○​ Respect for Persons: Acknowledging participants' autonomy and dignity.  ​ Example: Ensuring informed consent. ○​ Concern for Welfare: Protecting participants' well-being. ​ Example: Minimizing risks in a study. ○​ Justice: Ensuring fair treatment and equitable benefits. ​ Example: Including diverse populations in research. ​ Informed Consent: ○​ Participants must be fully informed about procedures, risks, and benefits. ​ Mandatory Ethics Review: ○​ All experimental procedures must be disclosed and reviewed by an ethics board. Scientific Approach to Psychology ​ Purpose and Goals: ○​ Measure: Collect accurate and objective data. ○​ Describe: Provide detailed observations. ○​ Predict: Identify patterns to anticipate outcomes. ○​ Explain: Understand causes of behavior. ○​ Understand: Develop a comprehensive view of phenomena. ​ Key Notions: ○​ Objectivity: Avoiding personal bias. ○​ Error Bias: Acknowledging potential inaccuracies. ○​ Theory: A framework to explain observations. ○​ Variables: Elements measured or manipulated in research. Main Steps in Research 1.​ Formulate a Testable Hypothesis: Create a clear, empirical question. ○​ Example: "Does sleep improve memory?" 2.​ Develop Research Methodology and Design: Plan how to test the hypothesis. 3.​ Data Collection: Gather information through methods like surveys or experiments. 4.​ Data Analysis: Use statistical or qualitative methods to interpret results. 5.​ Interpretation of Data: Relate findings back to the hypothesis. 6.​ Report Findings: Share results in journals or presentations. Types of Analysis ​ Regression Analysis:  ○​ Examines relationships between variables to predict outcomes. ○​ Example: Predicting exam scores based on study time. ​ Qualitative Analysis: ○​ Explores themes and patterns in non-numerical data. ○​ Example: Analyzing interview transcripts for recurring themes. ​ Mixed Methods: ○​ Combines qualitative and quantitative approaches. ○​ Example: Conducting surveys and follow-up interviews. Sources of Bias ​ Design Bias and Confounds: Flaws in study design that affect results. ​ Experimenter Bias and Confounds: Researchers’ expectations influencing outcomes. ​ Double-Blind Studies: Both participants and researchers are unaware of group assignments. ○​ Example: Used in drug trials to avoid bias. ​ Placebo Effect: Participants’ expectations affecting results. Statistics and Measurement ​ Parametric Statistics: ○​ Analyzes data assuming a normal distribution. ​ Measures of Central Tendency: ○​ Mean: The average of a dataset. ○​ Median: The middle value when data is ordered. ○​ Mode: The most frequently occurring value. ​ Variance: ○​ Explained Variation: Differences accounted for by variables. ○​ Unexpected Variation: Random differences not explained by variables. Hypothesis Testing ​ Guided by Theory: Hypotheses are grounded in existing knowledge. ​ Empirically Testable: Clearly stated and measurable. ​ Null Hypothesis: Assumes no effect or relationship. ○​ Example: "Sleep has no effect on memory." ​ Rejecting the Null: Based on data analysis, researchers may favor an alternative hypothesis. Probability and Statistical Reliability ​ Reliable Findings: Results unlikely to occur by chance. ○​ Example: A probability value of 0.05 means findings are 95% likely to be accurate. Variables ​ Independent Variable (IV): Manipulated factor in an experiment. ○​ Example: Hours of sleep. ​ Dependent Variable (DV): Measured outcome. ○​ Example: Memory test scores. ​ Types of Variables: ○​ Continuous: Measurable along a range. ​ Example: Height or time. ○​ Categorical: Divided into distinct groups. ​ Example: Gender or eye color. Week 4 bologcial psychology Statistics in Psychology Parametric & Inferential Statistics ​ Parametric statistics: Statistical methods that assume data follows a specific distribution (e.g., normal distribution). ​ Inferential statistics: Methods used to draw conclusions from sample data and generalize findings to a larger population. Bell Curve & Variance ​ Bell curve (Normal distribution): A symmetrical, bell-shaped distribution where most data points cluster around the mean. ​ Variance: A measure of how much data points differ from the mean. High variance means greater spread, while low variance indicates closer clustering around the mean. Experimental Design ​ Classical Experimental Design: A structured research approach to test hypotheses, involving: ○​ Treatment Group: Receives the experimental condition.  ○​ Control Group: Does not receive the experimental condition, used for comparison. ​ Variables: ○​ Independent Variable (IV): The factor manipulated by the researcher. ○​ Dependent Variable (DV): The outcome measured in response to changes in the IV. ​ Types of Variables: ○​ Continuous Variables: Can take an infinite range of values (e.g., height, weight). ○​ Categorical Variables: Have fixed categories or groups (e.g., gender, race). Hypothesis Testing ​ Always guided by theory. ​ Null Hypothesis (H₀): Assumes no effect or difference exists. ​ Alternative Hypothesis (H₁): Proposes a significant effect or difference. Probability & Statistical Reliability ​ Coin Toss (50/50 Probability): A simple model of probability representing chance-based outcomes. Early Concepts in Neurology Franz Gall & Phrenology ​ Franz Gall proposed phrenology, which suggested that skull shape correlated with personality traits. This theory was later debunked. Neuroanatomy & Nervous System Neuron Structure & Function A neuron is the basic unit of the nervous system, responsible for transmitting information. ​ Dendrites: Receive signals from other neurons. ​ Cell Soma (Cell Body): Contains the nucleus, processes incoming signals. ​ Nucleus: The control center of the neuron. ​ Axon: Transmits electrical impulses away from the cell body. ​ Myelin Sheath: Fatty layer that insulates the axon and speeds up signal transmission. ​ Nodes of Ranvier: Gaps in the myelin sheath that facilitate rapid conduction of nerve impulses. ​ Terminal Buttons: Release neurotransmitters to communicate with other neurons. ​ Synapse: The gap between neurons where neurotransmitters are released. Neurotransmitters & Their Functions ​ Acetylcholine (ACh): Involved in movement, memory, and learning. Found at neuromuscular junctions. ​ Dopamine: Regulates voluntary movement, pleasure, and reward. ​ Norepinephrine: Influences mood, alertness, and arousal. ​ Serotonin: Affects sleep, mood, appetite, and aggression.-[ Agonists & Antagonists ​ Agonist: A chemical that mimics or enhances the action of a neurotransmitter. Example: Methadone (used for opioid addiction treatment). ​ Antagonist: A chemical that blocks or reduces the action of a neurotransmitter. Example: Naltrexone ("Narcan") for opioid overdose. Nervous System Overview Central Nervous System (CNS) ​ Brain: The control center of the body, responsible for cognition, movement, and regulation of bodily functions. ​ Spinal Cord: Transmits information between the brain and the rest of the body. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) ​ Nerves outside the CNS that connect the brain and spinal cord to the body. ○​ Somatic Nervous System (Voluntary control): Regulates skeletal muscle movement. ○​ Autonomic Nervous System (Involuntary control): Regulates internal organs and glands. Brain Anatomy & Functions Major Brain Divisions 1.​ Hindbrain (Basic life functions) ○​ Medulla & Pons: Control unconscious functions (breathing, heart rate).  ○​ Reticular Formation: Regulates sleep and arousal. ○​ Cerebellum: Coordinates balance and fine motor movement. 2.​ Midbrain (Sensory and motor functions) ○​ Reticular Formation: Connects hindbrain and forebrain, involved in alertness. 3.​ Forebrain (Higher cognitive functions) ○​ Thalamus: Relays sensory information. ○​ Hypothalamus: Regulates biological drives (hunger, thirst, temperature). ○​ Cerebrum: Involved in thinking, learning, emotions, and consciousness. ○​ Corpus Callosum: Connects the two hemispheres of the brain. Lobes of the Brain & Their Functions ​ Frontal Lobe: Responsible for decision-making, problem-solving, and voluntary movement. ○​ Broca’s Area: Controls speech production (left hemisphere). ​ Parietal Lobe: Processes sensory information such as touch, temperature, and pain. ​ Temporal Lobe: Involved in auditory processing and memory. ○​ Primary Auditory Cortex: Processes sound. ○​ Wernicke’s Area: Responsible for language comprehension (left hemisphere). ​ Occipital Lobe: Processes visual information. Hemispheric Lateralization ​ Left Hemisphere: Controls language, logic, reading, and writing. ​ Right Hemisphere: Handles spatial abilities, music perception, and visual recognition. Bisection of the Corpus Callosum ​ Used to treat severe epilepsy, but can affect communication between brain hemispheres. Brain Damage & Neurological Disorders Types of Brain Damage ​ Closed Head Injury: Trauma from accidents or falls. ​ Severe Head Trauma: Can cause long-term cognitive and motor impairments. ​ Chronic Alcohol Use – Korsakoff’s Syndrome: A neurocognitive disorder caused by severe thiamine (Vitamin B1) deficiency, often due to prolonged alcohol  abuse. Korsakoff’s Syndrome Symptoms ​ Ataxia: Loss of muscle coordination. ​ Extra-pyramidal tremors: Involuntary muscle movements. ​ Paralysis of eye muscles. ​ Memory loss & confabulation: Fabricating false memories. ​ Apathy & lack of insight. ​ Coma in severe cases. Neurotoxic Drug Damage ​ Methamphetamine: Causes significant brain damage, affecting dopamine levels and cognitive function.