PSY101_CHAPTER7_upload 2.pptx

Psychology: From Inquiry to Understanding 2/e Scott O. Lilienfeld Steven Jay Lynn Laura Namy Nancy J. Woolf Prepared by Caleb W. Lack This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: any public performance or display, including transmis...

Psychology: From Inquiry to Understanding 2/e Scott O. Lilienfeld Steven Jay Lynn Laura Namy Nancy J. Woolf Prepared by Caleb W. Lack This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or part, of any images; any rental, lease, or lending of the program. Chapter 9 INTELLIGENCE & IQ TESTING LECTURE PREVIEW  Definition and Theories of Intelligence  Intelligence Testing / Measurement of IQ  Genetic & Environmental Influences on IQ  Group Differences in IQ WHAT IS INTELLIGENCE?  Challenge to Define Intelligence! Francis Galton (1822-1911): - What makes people smart? (Sensory abilities) o o o Most of the knowledge first come through senses People with better senses acquire more knowledge (byproduct of sensory capacity) False! Measures of sensory ability were only weakly related to intelligence E. g. A deaf & blind person might become a brilliant author WHAT IS INTELLIGENCE? o Intelligence can take many meanings    o o Australian: success in mastering hunting skills New Yorker: success in business life Non westerner: wisdom & doing good for the society Intelligence ► stg to do with the capacity to understand theoretical & hypothetical concepts (abstract thinking) Intelligence: the capacity to     Reason abstractly & think rationally Learn to adapt to novel environmental conditions Acquire and use knowledge Benefit from the experience THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE Are There Different Kinds of Intelligence?  Charles Spearman: + corr. among test items - People who scored correct on one item, more likely to score correct on other items!  g or g-factor: Reflects intelligence! by nature (underlying general construct) The single, general factor for mental ability Power of mental engines Criticism : Statistical artifact??? + corr. consistenly found regardless of the content! THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE Charles Spearman: + corr. among test items - Specific Abilities (S): by nurture Verbal Ability: ability to comprehend the meaning of the words and communicate effectively. E.g. Which of the word pairings have similar meanings? Mechanical Ability: the ability or level of understanding an individual holds when working or using mechanical machinery E.g. Which man carries more weight? THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE Charles Spearman: + corr. among test items - Specific Abilities (S): by nurture Numerical Ability: Numerical ability is defined as the capacity to comprehend, reason about, and apply basic numerical ideas. Understanding & performing basic arithmetical operations (e.g. addition,substraction etc...) E.g. 4, 7, 12, 15, 20, ? What comes next? Spatial Ability: Spatial ability is the capacity to understand, reason and remember the visual and spatial relations among objects or space. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE o Raymond Cattell & John Horn (1966): Two factors o Fluid intelligence: Reflects the ability to think logically, reason abstractly, comprehension of information & learn new ways of solving problems E.g. solve a new puzzle; learn to operate a new equipment o Crystallized intelligence: Accumulation of information, knowledge, and skills that people learn through experience & education E.g. What is the capital city of Italy? Fluid Intelligence → Long term memory → Crystallized Intelligence o Evidence: Fluid intelligence ↓ Cyrstallized Intelligence ↑ o Cyrstallized IQ – Openness to Experience Fluid IQ – G factor o Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence (1983): o There are multiple intelligences & different domains of intellectual skills. o Separate intelligence; Isolated by studying ind.s with brain damage  Existence of autistic savants? (poor abilities in one domain, but exceptionally high in others  Evolutionary adaptation (makes organisms survive)  o Criticisms: Not clear why certain abilities count as intelligence, but not others??? (humor??? artistic?? romantic???) No development of tests measuring these intelligences, so doubtful whether they are really independent Pos. corr. across test scores??? (savants also score high on IQ tests) THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE 11 THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE o Stenberg’s Triarchic Model of Intelligence (1988) : 1) Analytical Intelligence: ability to reason logically, evaluate information and solve problems (closely rel. to g) (traditional intelligence tests, college admission exams) 2) Practical Intelligence: ability to solve real-world problems, get along in different contexts, successful interaction w/ everyday world (performance of employees & soldiers perform in business & military settings) 3) Creative Intelligence: ability to come up with new solutions to problems, developing novel ideas, synthesizing existing knowledge to make new connections (composing a poem, piece of music) Criticisms: practice intelligence independent of g??? reflects job knowledge??? lacks a solid empirical basis??? BIOLOGICAL BASES OF INTELLIGENCE Is intelligence related to brain size & efficacy?? o Brain size (brain/body ratio) corr. w/ intelligence across species not corr. w/ intelligence within species Einstein → weighed slightly smaller than avarage (1230 g) o Brain volume( surface area) pos.ly corr. (.30-.40) w/ intelligence causality problem? (third factor ►nutrition?) o Higher intelligence is related to the thickness of the cerebral cortex Einstein → larger parietal cortex, high density of neurons & glial cells. o FMRI → activation of prefrontal cortex (parietal & temporal) o Intelligent people show less brain activity in many areas (efficiency) BIOLOGICAL BASES OF INTELLIGENCE o Reaction time assoc. with intelligence  Study (Jensen, 2006): Subjects placed in front of a time box (buttons & lights) One light turns off → subjects hit the button as quickly as possible Intelligence corr. –ly (-.30 to -40) with the reaction time o People who think quickly tend to be more intelligent o Memory assoc. with intelligence (working memory tasks corr.s .50s with intelligence tests) o Brain metabolism (mental energy) related to intelligence ASSESSING INTELLIGENCE o Francis Galton: First efforts to measure intelligence (sensory perception & reaction time tests) Wrong assumption! The size & shape of the head?? o Eugenics (Good Genes): improve the population quality by encouraging people w/ good genes (pos.eugenics)to reproduce ; discouraging people w/ bad genes from reproducing (neg.eugenics) 1) IQ tests involve verbal ability test items; problematical for non-English speakers (score lower) 2) In 1907→ law for sterilization of low-IQ individuals passed. o 66.000 African Americans, poor minorities underwent forced sterilization. o Surgeons deceived that they were undergoing emergency appendectomies. ASSESSING INTELLIGENCE o William Stern (1912): Intelligence Quatient (IQ) o Mental age (MA): Age corresponding to the average person’s performance on an intelligence test Chronological age (CA): Actual age (biological) of the person. o E.g. 10 year-old performing at the level of 8 IQ= 80 (below average) 10 year old performıng at the level of 12 IQ= 120 (above average) o For adults deviation IQ: Each person’s IQ relative to the norms of his/her age group. Anyone who has a mental age equals to chronical age has an IQ= 100 Figure 4: Bell-Shaped Distribution ASSESSING INTELLIGENCE o Alfred Binet & Thedore Simon (1904): French government wanted to identify children that required special educational assistance. o Binet & Simon ►experimented with many items to distinguish slow learners. ( First intelligence test: diagnostic tool to measure overall thinking ability) o Items were diverse in content - naming objects higher mental processes - drawing pictures from memory - completing sentences - identifying similarities in objects o 30 items (reasoning, understanding, judgment) ASSESSING INTELLIGENCE • Lewis Terman (1916): Stanford University Translated & modified Binet & Simon”s test ↓ Stanford-Binet IQ Test (Still used with the 5th edition) o Can be administered to both children & adults (items vary acc. to the age of the person) o Similar items, vocabulary, naming objects, memory, repeating sentences, following commands o Five dimensions ►fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing and working memory. o Norms: baseline score in the general population that we can compare ind.’s score (same age) (norms for 30-54, 55-69) ASSESSING INTELLIGENCE ASSESSING INTELLIGENCE o Robert Yerkes (president of APA) : During World War I (19141918), worked with the U.S. Army to develop intelligence tests for army recruits. o The Army Alpha & Beta tests  the first mass testing efforts. Alpha  Those who could read Beta  Those who were nonliterate o Place soldiers to positions matching their cognitive abilities. ASSESSING INTELLIGENCE o ASSESSING INTELLIGENCE o ASSESSING INTELLIGENCE o In 1989 the American Academy of Science listed IQ tests as one of the greatest achievements of 20th cc. o o Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale –IV ; WAIS-IV: David Wechsler (1949) 16 & older o Consists of 15 subtests that give five scores      Overall IQ Verbal comprehension Perceptual reasoning Working memory Processing speed ASSESSING INTELLIGENCE o o o o Wonderlic Personnel Test (Wonderlic,1983): 50 items for employment (12 minutes) Short and assess basic verbal & numerical abilities; (capability of solving problems & learning) Alternative form: The Wonderlic Personnel Test- Quick test (30 questions in 8 minutes) E. g. FLAMMABLE, INFLAMMABLE - Do these words 1. Have similar meanings ------- 2. Have contradictory meanings -----3. Mean neither the same nor opposite Which of the following numbers represents the smallest amount: 0.400 --- 0.04 --- 4.0 --- 40 o o Otis Self-Administering Test of Mental Ability (Otis, 1929) 75 items for students     o o Mathematical ability Language competency Vocabulary Basic Science Skill Two forms; ages 4-9; 7-12 Takes 20-30 min.s Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Chidren V ; WISC-V: o Ages of 6 & 16. o Takes 45 to 65 minutes to administer. o Consists of 21 subtests that give five scores       o Overall IQ Verbal comprehension Visual Spatial Index Fluid Reasoning Working memory Processing speed Can be used to diagnose intellectually gifted children, attentiondeficient hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) & learning disabilities. o Wechsler Primary & Preschool Scale of Intelligence; (WPPSI; 1967) o Version of WAIS adapted for younger children (2-7 years old) o Five Subtests (core, supplemental, or optional) The core subtests ► Verbal, Performance, and Full Scale IQ. The supplemental subtests ► additional info. about cognitive abilities / replacement for inappropriate subtests. The optional subtests ► provide additional info about cognitive functioning /cannot be used as replacements o o o      Verbal comprehension, Fluid reasoning, Visual-spatial ability, Processing speed Working memory. o o o o Computerized Adaptive Testing (CAT): Every test-taker does not receive identical sets of test questions The examinee’s response (i.e., right or wrong) → next question Tailored testing; adjust the level of item difficulty to match the knowledge & ability of the test-taker. Difficult questions → the higher the score o Advantages:  Shorter; less expensive  Immediately delivered results  Disadvantages:   Large number of test items must be created and calibrated Early mistakes by test takers can hurt final scores o Test validity & reliability are prerequisites for accurate assessment of intelligence o Reliability: Consistency of the measurement. Similar scores over time - For WAISC-IV; .95 over several weeks of interval - In adults, scores tend to be highly stable over long periods of time (Deary et al., 2000; age at 11 & at 77 → .73) - Prior to age 2-3; IQ tests are not stable (IQ measured in the first 6 months ► no corr. with adult IQ) (unless extremely low) o Validity: Test actually measures what it is supposed to measure A measure of introversion; but really measuring anxiety? Skull size = intelligence o IQ scores predict grades (.50s with high school & college grades) o Performance across wide variety of occupations (.40s-.50s) o Real world beh.s outside classroom & work contexts IQ → sickness, car accidents, criminal tendencies (Confounding???? Poverty, low SES) o Norms: Standards of test performance allows the comparison of one person’s score on a test with the scores of others • Standardized tests VARIANCE IN INTELLECTUAL ABILITIES o How are the extremes of intelligence characterized?  Intellectual Disabilities (Mental Retardation): % 1- %3 of the population (mostly males) o characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior (everyday social & practical skills) - Onset prior to adulthood - IQ around 70 - Inadequate adaptive functioning (e.g. dressing, feeding oneself ) - The susceptibility to being duped by others (gullibility) o A diagnosis of mental retardation qualifies ind.s for additional government services. VARIATIONS IN INTELLECTUAL ABILITIES o How are the extremes of intelligence characterized?  Intellectual Disabilities (Mental Retardation): o Mild = IQ of 55 to 69 Constitutes 90% of all people with intellectual disabilities development is slow, but able to hold jobs & families o Moderate =IQ of 40 to 54 motor & language skill deficits, simple job o Severe = IQ of 25 to 39 o Profound = IQ below 25 can not function independently VARIATIONS IN INTELLECTUAL ABILITIES  Intellectual Disabilities (Mental Retardation): Both biological & environmental factors are responsible Fetal Fetal alcohol alcohol syndrome syndrome • Occurs in newborns, caused by mother’s use of alcohol during pregnancy (1 in every 750) Down Down syndrome syndrome • Occurs if a person is born with 47 chromosomes instead of the usual 46 (extra copy of 21ST chromozome VARIATIONS IN INTELLECTUAL ABILITIES  Intellectual Disabilities (Mental Retardation): Both biological & environmental factors are responsible Familial Familial intellectual intellectual disability disability • No apparent biological defect exists but there is a history of intellectual disability in the family • The more severe the retardation, the less likely it is to run in families Others Others • • • • • Birth complications. Lack of oxygen Certain diseases during pregnancy (e.g. rubella, chicken pox) Poor nutrition & poor stimulation Maternal age Drug & Alcohol use during pregnancy VARIATIONS IN INTELLECTUAL ABILITIES  Integrating Individuals with Intellectual Disabilities o Education for All Handicapped Children Act (Public Law 94-142), mid 1970s o o o o People with intellectual disabilities are entitled to a full education Must be educated and trained in the least restrictive environment Mainstreaming - Integration into regular classrooms during specific time periods. Full inclusion - Total integration of all Students into regular classes, (no separate special classes) VARIATIONS IN INTELLECTUAL ABILITIES  Integrating Individuals with Intellectual Disabilities o 222 sayılı İlköğretim ve Eğitim Kanunu’nun 12. maddesi “Mecburi ilköğrenim çağında bulundukları halde zihnen, bedenen, ruhan ve sosyal bakımdan engelli olan çocukların özel eğitim ve öğretim görmeleri sağlanır” o 5378 sayılı Engelliler Hakkında Kanun’un 15. maddesi “Hiçbir gerekçeyle engellilerin eğitim alması engellenemez. Engelliler, özel durumları ve farklılıkları dikkate alınarak, yaşadıkları çevrede bütünleştirilmiş ortamlarda, eşitlik temelinde, hayat boyu eğitim imkânından ayrımcılık yapılmaksızın yararlandırılır. Genel eğitim sistemi içinde engellilerin her seviyede eğitim almasını sağlayacak bütünleştirici planlamalara yer verilir. Örgün eğitim programlarına farklı nedenlerle geç başlamış engellilerin bu eğitime dâhil edilmesi için gerekli tedbirler alınır.” VARIATIONS IN INTELLECTUAL ABILITIES  The Intellectually Gifted o The 2% segment of the population who have IQ scores greater than 130   Negative stereotypes associated with the intellectually gifted Intellectually gifted are most often outgoing, well-adjusted, healthy, popular, able to do things better than the average person o Lewis Therman (1920s): 1500 children (above135 IQ) followed rest of life - more physically, academically, socially capable. - earned higher incomes, (97 Ph.D, 57 medical degree, 92 law degree) - made more contributions to art & literature o Genetical factors play a significant role. GROUP DIFFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE  Gender Differences: o Handful researchers reported men > women (3-5 pts) o Controversial ! ( few or no sex differences in average IQ but men more variable) o Men & women are quite similar in most intellectual abilities. o Also, consistent sex differences in specific mental abilities! o Women better; - verbal tasks; spelling, writing & pronouncing words - facial recognition & understanding expressions of others - arithmetic calculation (only in childhood) GROUP DIFFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE IQ distribution of men is wider than the distribution of women GROUP DIFFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE  Gender Differences: o Consistent sex differences in specific mental abilities! o Men better; tasks of spatial ability mental rotation tasks mathematical tasks involving complex reasoning & geometry    o o Maybe genes in part ? (testosterone assoc. with spatial ability) Socialization & education? (female & male infants show no difference in spatial ability) o From 2001 on the percentage of women entering hard sciences increasing GROUP DIFFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE  Racial Differences: o o African-Americans &Hispanic Americans score lower than Caucasians Asian-Americans score higher than Caucasians Jews score slightly higher than non-Jews o Herrnstein & Murray; published a book The Bell Curve (1994) o - IQ plays a much more impotant role in society - The IQ differences btw. African-Americans & White Americans are genetic. (15 points lower) - Racism? o o Racial “superiority” is certainly not the answer IQ differences appear to be shrinking GROUP DIFFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE Environmental Factors : Good water and light Minimal water and light GROUP DIFFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE  Environmental Factors : o Blacks- economically disadvantaged group o Racial gap drops sig.ly after college education o Blacks raised in economically enriched environments have similar scores to whites o Adopted black children by white families score higher o Greatest discrepancies in IQ scores occur when comparing individuals not when comparing mean IQ scores of different groups GROUP DIFFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE  Bias in IQ Testing : o The background and experience of test-takers do have the potential to affect results o Tests may be biased against some racial & cultural groups on the basis of the types of questions provided o Assessments of cognitive ability developed in the United States may favor responses that implicitly reflect North American • Values • Customs • Traditions o E.g. Children raised in Western cultures group things on the basis of what they are (dog- fish: animal), children from Kypelle tribe group things on the basis of what they do (fish& swim) GROUP DIFFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE  Bias in IQ Testing : CULTURE-FAIR IQ TESTS o Consist of abstract-reasoning items that don’t depend on language o John C. Raven (1936); Raven’s Progressive Matrices (5-11 years old) o Which is the final pattern in this series? FLYNN EFFECT o The average IQ of the population has been rising by about 3 points every 10 years o The average person today gets more items correct on IQ tests than the average person did several generations ago o Most likely the result of environmental changes    Increased complexity of modern world (phones, tv, computer, e-mail) Better nutrition Changes at home and school (smaller families, spend more years at school) Flynn Effect