Intelligence Module 9 PDF

Intelligence Module: 9 Intelligence The “ability” to use knowledge to reason, make decisions, make sense of events, solve problems, understand complex ideas, learn quickly, and adapt to environmental challenges Alfred Binet launched the psychometric approach to assess intelligence T...

Intelligence Module: 9 Intelligence The “ability” to use knowledge to reason, make decisions, make sense of events, solve problems, understand complex ideas, learn quickly, and adapt to environmental challenges Alfred Binet launched the psychometric approach to assess intelligence The psychometric approach focuses on how people perform on standardized tests that assess mental abilities Binet developed the intelligence test to predict children’s future progress in the Paris school system [Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale; Now known as the Stanford-Binet test] Adapted in other languages and used widely to assess children’s intelligence “Intelligence - the ability that intelligence tests measure.”  Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) Two aspects – verbal and performance Verbal Comprehension Working Memory Perceptual Reasoning Processing Speed Intelligence quotient (IQ) Mental age: An assessment of a child’s intellectual standing compared with that of same-age peers; determined by comparing the child’s test score with the average score for children of each chronological age IQ is an index of intelligence computed by dividing a child’s estimated mental age by the child’s chronological age, then multiplying this number by 100 (Mental Age / Chronological Age x 100) [developed by the psychologist Wilhelm Stern]  IQ in the adult range is measured in comparison with the average adult: one person’s score is relative to the scores of the large number of people who already took the test Are intelligence tests reliable and valid? There is considerable evidence that a person’s performance on an intelligence test at one time corresponds highly to the person’s performance at another time (Matarazzo, Carmody, & Jacobs, 1980) To explore the validity of intelligence tests, researchers analyzed data from 127 studies in which more than 20,000 participants took the Miller Analogy Test (analogies such as “Fingers are to hands as toes are to ____.”) scores on the Miller Analogy Test predicted not only graduate students’ academic performances but also individuals’ productivity, creativity, and job performances in the workplace (Kuncel, Hezlett, & Ones, 2004) Are intelligence tests reliable and valid? The overall evidence indicates that IQ is a fairly good predictor of life outcomes such as doing well at school or at a complex career (Gottfredson, 2004) IQ does not predict who will be a better truck driver (which is not a complex career), but it predicts who will be a better computer programmer (Schmidt & Hunter, 2004) IQ scores only predicts about 25% variation in performance either at school or work so additional factors such as self- control, willingness to work, passion also contribute to individual success Even with factors such as IQ and social background being more or less equal, a person working twice as many hours per week may have that much more chance of accomplishing his or her goals (Lubinski, 2004).  Two approaches towards theorizing intelligence: 1) Intelligence as single unified set of skills 2) Intelligence as multiple, unique set of skills  Intelligence as a general ability Providing a single IQ score reflects the idea that one general factor underlies intelligence Charles Spearman (1904) found that people who scored highly on one type of item also tended to score highly on other types of items i.e., people who are very good at math are also good at writing, problem solving, and other mental challenges [This is called as general intelligence, or “g”] Intelligence as a general ability Raymond Cattell (1971) proposed that “g” consists of two types of intelligence. “Fluid intelligence” is being able to understand abstract relationships and think logically without prior knowledge It involves information processing, especially in novel or complex circumstances, such as reasoning, drawing analogies, and thinking quickly and flexibly In contrast, “crystallized intelligence” involves knowledge acquired through experience, such as vocabulary and cultural information, and the ability to use this knowledge to solve problems [Fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence are somewhat analogous to working memory and long-term memory, respectively]  Multiple intelligences (of Robert Sternberg) Each person has a unique pattern of intelligences, and no one should be viewed as smarter than others-just differently talented  Multiple intelligences (of Howard Gardner) Howard Gardner (1983) proposed that people can be intelligent in any number of ways, such as being musically or athletically talented Emotional intelligence (EI) EI is a form of social intelligence that emphasizes the abilities to manage, recognize, and understand emotions and use emotions to guide appropriate thought and action EI consists of four abilities (Salovey & Grewel, 2005; Salovey & Mayer, 1990): managing one’s emotions using one’s own emotions to guide thoughts and actions recognizing other people’s emotions understanding emotional language EI is correlated with the quality social relationships (Reis et al., 2007), academic performance among children and workplace performance among senior executives (Brackett, Rivers, & Salovey, 2011) Factors related (but not same) to intelligence Speed of mental processing: People who score higher on intelligence tests respond more quickly and consistently on reaction time tests than those who score lower on intelligence tests (Deary, 2000); they take lesser viewing time to answer a question about the stimulus (Deary, 2001) Also, highly intelligent people’s brains work faster than less intelligent people’s brains Working memory: Working memory is related to intelligence (Kyllonen & Christal, 1990; Süß, Oberauer, Wittman, Wilhelm, & Schulze, 2002) The link between working memory and general intelligence may be through attention [i.e. focus and resistance to distraction] [Is long-term memory related to IQ (according to the definition of intelligence)?] Savants with great memory but low IQ: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WZsJ6BtOh60 Genes and Environment influence Intelligence There is likely a genetic component to intelligence that involves many genes, but environment plays a large role in how intelligence is expressed. Genes help determine intelligence For example, studies show that twins raised apart are highly similar in intelligence Many environmental influences affect human intelligence. Prenatal factors (e.g., parents’ nutrition and intake of substances, including toxins) and postnatal factors (e.g., family, social class, education, nutrition, cultural beliefs about the value of education, and the person’s intake of substances, including toxins). For instance, breast-feeding during infancy has been shown to enhance intellectual development (Mortensen, Michaelsen, Sanders, & Reinisch, 2002). Creativity Module: 10 What is Creativity? Elements of Creativity Three component that makes an idea creative (Simonton, 2012) Originality - How unique is the idea? Usefulness - How valuable is the idea or object? Does it work? Surprise - Is it surprising? At the very least, is it nonobvious? These are quantitative rather than qualitative attributes of an idea If an idea or objects gets a zero on any of the criteria, then it is not creative. E.g., Reinventing the wheel (useful but no originality hence not creative) What about poetry and Art? Who makes these judgments? Who decides whether something is creative? Two types of Creativity Little-c creativity - If the person who is creating the product/art/invention decides subjective and personal Big-C Creativity - If someone other than the person who produces the product/art/invention decides whether it is creative objective or consensual rating of creativity Cognitive Processes: How Do Creators Think? Thinking processes that enable a person to “think outside the box” leads to creative ideas Mednick (1962) believed that creative process requires the ability to associate ideas that are considered very far apart (1) Remote Associates Test (RAT) (Mednick, 1962) Creative process requires the ability to associate ideas that are considered very far apart conceptually question presents three cue words that are linked by a fourth word For e.g., rocking / wheel / high/ ???? http://www.remote-associates-test.com/ (2) Unusual Uses Test (Guilford, 1967; Torrance, 1974) The test asks individuals to come up with unusual uses for every day items The uses are scored on 4 dimensions: Fluency - the total number of appropriate uses generated Originality - the statistical rarity of the uses given Flexibility - the number of distinct conceptual categories implied by the various uses Elaboration - the amount of detail given for the generated uses Involves divergent thinking Write down all the possible uses for the following object (other than the normal use, of course): A shoe How many uses did you identify? What are some of the unusual uses?  Personal Characteristics: Who is Creative? Some creativity tests measures personality How would you describe yourself ? Would you use more adjectives in the left column or the right column? Higher scores indicate a more creative personality. The “Creative Personality” Creativity correlates with scores on personality measures - creativity is partially a personal attribute (hence partially inheritable?) Creative person scores higher on Openness-to-Experience (one of the Big Five Personality Traits) Strong intellectual curiosity, preference for variety, an active imagination, aesthetically sensitive, attentive to inner feelings, receptive to new ideas and values Reduced Latent Inhibition (diminished capacity to filter out extraneous information) Creative people aren’t as good at latent inhibition, which may allow them to make connections and observations other people overlook. Defocused attention Creators also possess high general intelligence hence has the capacity not just to generate original and surprising ideas but also to test and develop them for usefulness Creativity and mental illness There is link between creativity and psychopathology (Simonton, 2010) Bipolar is associated with creativity creators possess other personal traits and capacities that convert a potential cognitive disability into an exceptional ability (Carson, 2011). Relatives (Schizotype) of patients with schizophrenia exhibit creative personality trait Social Contexts and Creativity Exposure to Novel Stimuli - creativity is often enhanced when persons are exposed to incongruous or novel stimuli (Ritter et al., 2012) Participants who experienced the strange environment (the condition where the laws of gravity were violated) showed an increase in cognitive flexibility [Participants directly subjected to the manipulation that concerned cultural scripts (the customary way to make a popular breakfast meal), also showed an increase in cognitive flexibility] Novel stimuli likely have a short-term effect on creativity but what would happen if the exposure was much longer, years rather than minutes? Multicultural Experience increases creativity (Leung, Maddux, Galinsky, & Chiu, 2008) only if that person is also high on Openness-to-Experience  Do school kill creativity https://www.ted.com/talks/sir_ken_robinson_do_schools_kill_cre ativity Personality and Individual differences Module: 11 Personality Personality: A person’s characteristic thoughts, emotional responses, and behaviors It is relatively consistent over time and across situations There exist individual differences wrt personality traits There is genetic basis for personality (Plomin & Caspi, 1999; Turkheimer, Pettersson, & Horn, 2014) For instance, monozygotic twins are more similar in their personality traits than dizygotic twins or (non-twin) siblings [Thus, parenting style and life-span experiences may have relatively little impact on personality!] Adoption studies show personality of adopted children bear no significant relationship to those of the adopted parents Children with certain gene variation were found to be more likely to be violent criminals as adults if they were abused during childhood (Gene have their effects only if they were expressed) Temperament/personality is evident And, there exist gender in childhood itself differences in temperament in three temperaments, which are based early childhood (Else-Quest, on the degree of a child’s (a) activity Hyde, Goldsmith, & Van Hulle, level, (b) emotionality, and (c) 2006) sociability Girls demonstrated stronger abilities to control their attention and resist their impulses. Boys were more physically active and experienced more high-intensity preasure such as rough anf tumble play. Long-term implications of Temperaments The individuals judged undercontrolled at age 3 were later more likely to be antisocial, to have alcohol problems, and to be criminals than those judged either well adjusted or inhibited Theories of Personality  Psychodynamic theory Unconscious forces (such as wishes, desires and hidden memories) determine behavior Id: the component of personality that is unconscious and instinctive It operates according to the pleasure principle Superego: the internalization of societal and parental standards of conduct It operates by morality principle Ego: the component of personality that tries to satisfy the wishes of the id while being responsive to the dictates of the superego It operates by reality principle Unique interaction between Id, ego, and superego produce individual differences in personality Conflicts between the id and the superego lead to anxiety The ego then copes with anxiety through various defense mechanisms Reaction formation (e.g. homophobia) Humanistic theory of Personality Highlights the importance of how parents show affection for their children and how parental treatment affects personality development. Emphasizes how people seek to fulfill their potential through greater self-understanding (or self-actualization) It emerged as a reaction to Freudians who believed that personality is determined by unconscious conflicts and Behaviorists who argued that personality is based on patterns of reinforcement According to Carl Rogers, a child raised with unconditional positive regard would develop a healthy sense of self-esteem and would become a fully functioning person. Trait theories of Personality Trait approach to personality focuses on how individuals differ in personality dispositions, such as sociability, cheerfulness, and aggressiveness (Funder, 2001) Traits are patterns of thought, emotion, and behavior that are relatively consistent over time and across situations How many traits are there? Allport & Odbert (1936) counted the dictionary words that could be used as personality traits and found nearly 18,000 traits Raymond Cattell (1965), through factor analysis, identified 16 basic dimensions of personality [Factor analysis involves grouping items according to their similarities] McCrae & Costa (1999), through factor analysis, arrived at Big 5 factors of personality The big five personality traits For each factor, there is a continuum from low to high. Each factor is a higher order trait that is made up of interrelated lower-order traits. For instance, conscientiousness is determined by how careful and organized a person is. Emerges across cultures, among adults and children. Does Personality change due to Maturation? Personality seems to change over the life-span development For instance, people generally develop increased self-control and emotional stability as they age (Caspi, Roberts & Shiner, 2005) They become less neurotic, less extraverted, and less open to new experiences as they get older They also tend to become more agreeable and more conscientious (Srivastava, John, Gosling, & Potter, 2003) However, the age-related changes in personality occur independently of environmental influences and therefore that personality change itself may be based in human physiology or genetics Indeed, the extent of personality change is more similar in monozygotic twins than in dizygotic twins (McGue, Bacon, & Lykken, 1993) [Note: Age-related change is NOT personality change per se!] Does Personality change due to situation? Most research finds personality traits to be relatively stable over the adult life span (Heatherton & Weinberger, 1994) For instance, over many years the relative rankings of individuals on each of the Big Five personality traits remain stable (McCrae & Costa, 1990) A meta-analysis of 150 studies—through which a total of nearly 50,000 participants had been followed for at least one year—found strong evidence for stability in personality (Roberts & Friend-DelVecchio, 2000) Although the personality is consistent, its expression might change according to the situational demands It is termed as “characteristic adaptation” (Robert McCrae and Paul Costa, 1999) [Note: Characteristic adaptation is NOT personality change per se!]  Arousability basis of introversion- extraversion According to Hans Eysenck, the difference between introverts and extraverts is their differences wrt. arousability/sensitivity or how much they react to stimuli Extraverts typically are below their optimal levels of arousal or they are chronically under aroused To operate efficiently, they have to find arousal, so they impulsively seek out new situations and new emotional experiences For extraverts, quiet places are boring Introverts typically are above their optimal levels of arousal. Because they do not want any additional arousal, they prefer quiet solitude with few stimuli For introverts, noisy environment is distracting For instance, introverts experience pain more intensely than extraverts do (Lynn & Eysenck, 1961) And, introverts salivate more when lemon juice is placed on their tongues than extraverts do (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1967) Personality Assessment Culture influences Personality? Big five personality traits are valid across all countries (Schmitt, Allik, McCrae, & Benet-Martinez, 2007) Big five are universal for humans  Projective measures of Personality Projective measures examine unconscious processes by having people interpret ambiguous stimuli – describes what is the seen/tell stories/draws Projective hypothesis: Given an ambiguous stimulus, a person’s responses will be influenced by unconscious beliefs, needs, feelings, and experiences Reveals inner psychological states, needs and motivations Projective tests: Rorschach inkblot test TAT (Thematic Apperception Test) Rorschach inkblot test (Rorschach, 1921) Consists of a series of 10 symetrical blots where the subject states what they see Open ended nature of the test allows subjects to state a wide range of observations based on their perceptions & emotional state How a person describes the inkblot is supposed to reveal unconscious conflicts and other psychological https://www.rorschach.org problems.  Thematic Apperception Test (Morgan & Murray, 1935) Assesses implicit motives Generate stories about a series of pictures (about 20 cards) Scoring of the stories are based on personal motivations depicted in the stories Useful for measuring motivational traits— especially those related to achievement, power, and affiliation (McClelland, Koestner, & Weinberger, 1989) More valid than Rorschach https://www.utpsyc.org/tatintro/  Self report measures of Personality Personality can be assessed by eliciting self-reports through standardized questionnaires e.g. NEO Personality Inventory It consists of 240 items assess the Big Five personality factors (Costa & McCrae, 1992) e.g. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) consists of 567 true/false items that assess emotions, thoughts, and behaviors Originally designed to assess psychopathology (such paranoia, depression, mania, and hysteria) Most objective and valid measure Big 5 personality test: https://novopsych.com.au/assessments/formul ation/international-personality-item-pool-neo- 120-item-version-ipip-neo-120/ Self report measures of Personality Self-report measures have a drawback of biased reporting (fabricated responding leading to faking good or faking bad pattern) Informant ratings - Another approach is to ask someone who knows a person well (friends, roommates, dating partners, spouses, children, or bosses) to describe his or her personality characteristics in general, informant ratings are similar to self-ratings However, subject to some of the same response biases – leading to letter of recommendation effect (Leising, Erbs, & Fritz, 2010) and the honeymoon effect when applied to newlyweds (Watson & Humrichouse, 2006)  Who are you, really? The puzzle of personality https://www.ted.com/talks/brian_little_who_are_you_really_the_p uzzle_of_personality?language=en Name the emotion? Emotion Module: 11 Emotion, mood and feeling Emotion/affect: An immediate, specific negative or positive response to environmental events or internal thoughts. Components of emotion: Physiological process (e.g., heart beating fast and sweating), Behavioral response (e.g., eyes and mouth opening wide) Feeling: subjective experience of the emotion (e.g., I’m scared!). Moods are diffuse, long-lasting emotional states that do not have an identifiable object or trigger. Often people who are in good or bad moods have no idea why they feel the way they do  Primary emotion and secondary emotion Basic emotions or primary emotions Such as anger, fear, sadness, disgust, happiness, surprise, and, contempt. Are innate, evolutionarily adaptive, and universal (shared across cultures) Secondary emotions are blends of primary emotions Such as remorse, guilt, submission, shame, love, bitterness, and jealousy etc., Universality of Emotions Circumplex model Emotions are categorized along two continuums: valence (how negative or positive they are) and arousal (how arousing they are) Arousal is a generic term used to describe physiological activation (such as increased brain activity) or increased autonomic responses (such as quickened heart rate, increased sweating, or muscle tension).  Emotions involve activation of autonomic nervous system. Does each emotions have a specific body response? To study bodily responses and emotions, Finnish researchers asked people from various cultures to use a computer program to color which areas of the body were involved in feeling various emotions The Emotional Brain Theories of Emotion Commonsense view of emotion  James-Lange theory of emotion We perceive specific patterns of bodily responses, and as a result of that perception we feel emotion Facial feedback hypothesis: facial expressions trigger the experience of emotions Facial Feedback Hypothesis  Cannon-Bard theory of emotion Many emotions produce similar bodily responses. The similarities make it too difficult for people to determine quickly which emotion they are experiencing  Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory Person experiences physiological changes and applies a cognitive label to explain those changes. Physiological response to all emotional stimuli was essentially the same (undifferentiated physiological arousal) The arousal is interpreted differently, depending upon the situation, and given a label.  Misattribution of arousal Dutton & Aron (1974) tried to see whether people could feel romantic attraction through misattribution At the middle of the bridge an attractive female research assistant approached men and interviewed them, in two conditions – (1) those who are walking on a narrow suspension bridge and (2) walking on a sturdy modern bridge. She gave him her phone number and offered to explain the results of the study at a later date if he was interested Men interviewed on the less stable bridge were more likely to call the interviewer and ask her for a date Why? What are the functions of Emotions?  Functions of Emotion Emotions have personal and social functions E.g., Guilt Guilt is a negative emotional state associated with anxiety, tension, and agitation and occurs when someone feels responsible for another person’s negative affective state Roy Baumeister and colleagues (1994): guilt protects and strengthens interpersonal relationships in three ways. First, feelings of guilt discourage people from doing things that would harm their relationships, such as cheating on their partners, and encourage behaviors that strengthen relationships, such as phoning one’s parents regularly. Second, displays of guilt demonstrate that people care about their relationship partners, thereby affirming social bonds. Third, guilt is a tactic that can be used to manipulate others. Guilt is especially effective when used against people who hold power over others. For instance, a person might try to make his boss feel guilty so he does not have to work overtime. Children may use guilt to get adults to buy them presents or grant them privileges.  e.g. Embarrassment Embarrassment is felt after violating a cultural norm, losing physical poise, being teased, or experiencing a threat to his or her self-image (Miller, 1996) Individuals who are embarrassed after wrongdoing elicit more sympathy, more forgiveness, more amusement, and more laughter from onlookers (Cupach & Metts, 1990) Embarrassment communicates a realization of interpersonal errors. This nonverbal apology is an appeasement that elicits forgiveness in others, thereby repairing and maintaining relationships (Keltner & Anderson, 2000) [Thus, emotions communicate – unconsciously and non-verbally!] Psychology of Disgust https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u-TmKo75gJI Happiness: Subjective Well- Being Module – 13 Subjective well-being (SWB) is the scientific term for happiness and life satisfaction—thinking and feeling that your life is going well, not badly. Scientists rely primarily on self-report surveys to assess the happiness of individuals Satisfaction with Life Scale Below are five statements with which you may agree or disagree. Using the scale below, indicate your agreement with each item by placing the appropriate number on the line preceding that item. Please be open and honest in your response. Scale 1 = Strongly Disagree 2 = Disagree 3 = Slightly Disagree 4 = Neither Agree or Nor Disagree 5 = Slightly Agree 6 = Agree 7 = Strongly Agree ____ 1. In most ways my life is close to my ideal. ____ 2. The conditions of my life are excellent. ____ 3. I am satisfied with life. ____ 4. So far I have gotten the important things I want in life. ____ 5. If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing.  A score of 20 represents a neutral level of satisfaction: equally satisfied and dissatisfied with life. Are you satisfied with your level of happiness? If not, are there things you might do to change it? Make a list of those things. Does this list consist of factors related to the environment or related to you? You can take a similar tests on - https://www.authentichappiness.sas.upenn.edu/testcenter Happiness Pie Chart  Types of Happiness There are different types of happiness One type of happiness can be achieved even without the other types B’cs different factors influence different types of happiness e.g. a person with low income may not have life satisfaction but can have positive valence as (s)he has interesting work Causes of Subjective Well-Being Causes of Subjective Well-Being Money and Happiness? 1. Can money bring happiness to life ? 2. Is there a linear relationship between money and happiness ?  Money and Happiness A certain level of income is needed to meet our needs. Very poor are unhappy (Diener & Seligman, 2004) However, having more and more money has diminishing returns—higher and higher incomes make less and less difference to happiness High materialism seems to lower life satisfaction  Hedonic adaptation When good and bad events occur, people often react strongly at first, but their reactions adapt over time and they return to their former levels of happiness. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=juO4zxsjSj w&feature=share Life circumstances, like wealth and health, only have a short-term and limited influence on happiness. For example, someone who moves from the city into a quite village surrounded by beautiful nature may initially experience euphoria, then very happy and after about six months and then just a little happier than when he lived in the city. PERMA model of Happiness Martin Seligman, one of the founders of positive psychology, developed a five core element of psychological well-being and happiness. P – Positive Emotion E – Engagement R – Relationships M – Meaning A – Accomplishments Seligman believes that these five elements can help people work towards a life of fulfillment, happiness, and meaning. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iK6K_N2qe9Y&t=415s Science says, happier people have these 9 things in common… 1. Relationships are essential 2. Save time 3. Have basic/sufficient income 4. Enjoy little joys of life 5. Show acts of kindness (It boosts the mood) 6. Exercise 7. Spend money on experiences instead of things 8. Mindfulness 9. Meaningful work Research participation announcement  Motivation Module – 12 What motivated you to get up and do the pending work? How are people motivated? Maslow’s need theory of Motivation – people are driven by many needs which is arranged into a need hierarchy Basic survival needs must be met before people can satisfy higher needs Self-actualization might or might not be a requirement for happiness, the ranking of needs is not as simple as Maslow suggested. For instance, some people starve themselves in hunger strikes to demonstrate the importance of their personal beliefs. Others, who have satisfied their physiological and security needs, prefer to be left alone.  Drive reduction theory Reduction of drive is the primary force behind motivation The drive is a psychological state that by creating arousal, motivates an organism to satisfy a need (influenced by the idea of homeostasis) Any behaviour that satisfies a need is reinforced and therefore is more likely to recur. E.g., We drink when we are thirsty. We eat when we are hungry. Over time, if a behaviour consistently reduces a drive, it becomes a habit and therefore the dominant response produced by arousal e.g., watching YouTube to forget your troubles Drive increases in proportion to the amount of biological deprivation The hungrier you are, the more driven you are to find food, the sleepier you are, the more driven you are to sleep  Arousal and Drive A moderate level of arousal increases performance on challenging tasks, additional arousal interferes with performance. Yerkes-Dodson law predicts that students perform best on exams when feeling moderate anxiety. Too little anxiety can make them inattentive or unmotivated, while too much anxiety can interfere with their thinking ability. People differ in their optimal level of arousal People who have lower level of optimal arousal, prefer calmer activity People who have higher level of optimal arousal, prefer exciting activities. People are motivated to seek optimum level of arousal  Incentive theory of Motivation People do not always wait for deficient needs to drive behaviour in daily life. Instead people are motivated by their desires to achieve external goals. Incentive theorists differentiate between two types of motivation Extrinsic motivation: motivation to perform an activity to gain an external reward in return Intrinsic motivation: motivated to perform an activity because of the value or pleasure associated with that activity, rather than for an apparent external reward. Such as reading a good novel, solving crossword puzzles, or listening to music—seem to fulfill no obvious purpose other than enjoyment Another example - studying to get good grade vs studying to fulfil one’s own curiosity and interest The incentives may differ, but the behaviours they bring about may be the same Providing extrinsic reward for intrinsically motivated behaviors would improve or impair intrinsically motivated behaviors? Influence of Reward on Intrinsic Motivation Extrinsic rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation (Lepper, Greene, & Nisbett, 1973) Mark Lepper allowed children to draw with colored marking pens - three groups – Extrinsically rewarded (such as a “good player award”); unexpectedly rewarded following the task and a third group - neither rewarded nor led to expect a reward. Results: During a subsequent free-play period, children who were expecting an extrinsic reward spent much less time playing with the pens than did the children who were never rewarded or the children who received an unexpected reward. Two explanations: Self-determination theory: Extrinsic rewards may reduce intrinsic value because such rewards undermines people’s feeling that they are choosing to do something for themselves Self-perception theory: People are seldom aware of their specific motives. Instead, they draw inferences about their motives according to what seems to make the most sense. When people can not come up with obvious external explanation for the behaviour they conclude that they simply liked the behaviour Pleasure motivates behaviour Sigmund Freud proposed that people act according to the pleasure principle, which encourages them to seek pleasure and avoid pain (Hedonism - humans’ desire for pleasantness) Contradicts biological drive theories; e.g., eating dessert when you are not hungry, commonly occur because it is pleasurable (Cabanac, 1992). Hence, the incentive to enjoy the taste motivates eating certain foods, regardless of your hunger state. Approach and avoidance motivation: motivated to approach things that gives pleasure and avoid things that gives negative outcome E.g., seeking out food, sex, and companionship because they are all typically associated with pleasure; avoiding negative outcomes, such as dangerous animals, because of the association with pain (Watson, Wiese, Vaidya, & Tellegen, 1999). Approach and avoidance behaviours are inherent and adaptive most animals and infants prefer to eat sweets as revealed by their facial expressions (Steiner, 1977) Self efficacy and Achievement motives People’s personal expectations for success play an important role in motivation Self-efficacy (believing in yourself) plays a crucial role in achievement motivation (the desire to do well relative to standards of excellence) For instance, if you believe studying hard will lead to a good grade on an exam, you will be motivated to study. People with low self- efficacy do not believe that their efforts will pay off—and hence too discouraged even to study (in this example) People with high self-efficacy often set challenging goals that lead to success. People whose self-views are inflated set goals they cannot possibly achieve.  Delayed Gratification Delayed Gratification (the ability to delay the impulse for an immediate reward to receive a more favourable reward at a later time) play a crucial role in goal achievement [One of the characteristics of self-regulation] Highlighted by the famous marshmallow experiment by developmental psychologist Walter Mischel https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wi8jqjo8sV8 The ability to delay gratification in childhood has been found to predict higher SAT scores and better school grades (Mischel, Shoda, & Rodriguez, 1989). A 40-year follow-up study found that the ability to delay gratification remained stable into adulthood (Casey et al., 2011). Best strategy for delaying gratification is to mentally transform the desirable object into something undesirable Need to belong theory People have a need to belong: People have a fundamental need for interpersonal attachments, that have evolved for adaptive purposes just as a lack of food causes hunger, a lack of social contact causes emptiness and despair (lost all hope) Evidence indicates that people feel anxious when facing exclusion from their social groups Anxiety and Affiliation: Do you like to be around other people when you are anxious or do you prefer to avoid them? Increased anxiety lead to increased affiliative motivations Schachter (1959) manipulated anxiety levels and then measured how much the parti cipants, preferred to be around others Those in the high-anxiety condition were much more likely to want to wait with other people than low anxiety condition (Schachter, 1959)  A further study revealed that high- anxiety participants wanted to wait only with other high-anxiety participants, not with people who supposedly were waiting just to see their research supervisors. So misery loves miserable company, not just any company. Why do people in a stressful situation prefer to be around other people in the same situation? Answer is rooted in Social Comparison Theory Social Influences and social thought Module: 17  Group (ingroup and outgroup) formation People are motivated to be part of group and to maintain good relations with members of their group Social identity theory – Group membership are an important part of social identities and they contribute to each group members overall sense of self-esteem. people value the group with which they identify and in doing so also experience pride through their group membership. Whether it is pride in your school, your ethnicity or your country. Group becomes part of our identity and self-esteem People are more likely to distribute resources to ingroup members than to outgroup members [ingroup favouritism] Even, arbitrary group formation show in-group favouritism (Tajfel & Turner, 1979) Gender differences in ingroup bias (Rudman & Goodwin, 2004) Women show much greater ingroup bias toward other women than men do toward other men (Rudman & Goodwin, 2004). Although men generally favours their ingroup, they fail to do so when the category is sex, atleast within western cultures. Any guess why? Group influences on individual behavior Social facilitation – how presence of others influence individual’s performance Deindividuation – one’s identity and self awareness when in group Social Loafing – amount of efforts put on group work vs on individual work Compliance – Why do individuals confirm and comply to others Social facilitation Presence of others generally enhances performance Zajonc’s model predicts that social facilitation can either enhance or impair performance. If the required response is easy or well learned, performance is enhanced and if the required response is novel or not well learned, performance suffers [Robert Zajonc, 1965] Deindividuation People sometimes lose their individuality when they become part of a group They show reduced individuality, reduced self-awareness, and reduced attention to personal standards Deindividuated people often do things they would not do if they were alone or self-aware. A good example is crowd behavior. Classic study by Philip Zimbardo and Chris Haney showed how quickly apparently normal students could be transformed into the social roles they were playing (Haney, Banks, & Zimbardo, 1973) The Stanford Prison experiment - student-guards took on their roles with such vigor that the study was ended early because of the concerns for the well-being of the “guards” and the “prisoners.” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3XN2X72jrFk The study lacked many features of the true experiment but the result demonstrated what some people of willing to do when put in a situation with defined social roles. People are likely to become deindividuated when they are aroused and anonymous and when responsibility is diffused However not all deindividuated behaviours are so serious Social Loafing The tendency for people to not work as hard in a group than when working alone Also known as Ringelman effect https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7nzCEGN8eJM Occurs when people’s efforts are pooled so that individuals do not feel personally responsible for the group’s output e.g. group projects/assignments In a classic study, six blindfolded people wearing headphones were told to shout as loudly as they could. Some were told they were shouting alone. Others were told they were shouting with other people. Participants did not shout as loudly when they believed that others were shouting as well (Latané, Williams, & Harkins, 1979). Social loafing can be reduced by decreasing the group size. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aq20gUaRrw8&t=208s  Conformity Altering one’s behaviours and opinions to match those of other people or to match other people’s expectations Why do people confirm? Two primary reasons: Normative influence (following the social norms) People go along with the crowd to fit in with the group and to avoid looking foolish. Influenced by the social norms Informational influence People assume that the behaviour of the crowd represents the correct way to respond Conformity is influenced by group size and unanimity Conformity decrease with the group size of less than 3 A naive participant with a group of five confederates. The real participant always went sixth, giving his answer after the five confederates gave theirs. Solomon Asch (1955) conformity experiment https://www.youtube.com /watch?v=qA- gbpt7Ts8&t=117s For more see this: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f byIYXEu-nQ People often influence others’ behaviour simply by asking them to do things – Compliance Compliance is influenced by mood and by strategies such as the foot-in-the- door and door-in-the-face techniques If people agree to a small request, they become more likely to comply with a large and undesirable request [Foot in the door technique] Freedman and Fraser (1966) asked homeowners to allow a large, unattractive “DRIVE CAREFULLY” sign to be placed on their front lawns – most of the owners rejected – but after they have signed for a petition for safety measure – they all agreed for the former request Once people commit to a course of action, they behave in ways consistent with that commitment People are more likely to agree to a small request after they have refused a large request (Cialdini et al., 1975) [Door in the face technique] compliant person feels compelled to compromise because the requester has compromised Low-balling when you agree to buy a product for certain price, you are likely to comply with a request to pay more for the product People are obedient to Authority Milgram’s obedience study https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y6GxIuljT3w Original experiment video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fCVlI-_4GZQ&t=325s shock levels starting at 15 volts and increasing in 15-volt increments all the way up to 450 volts People obey orders given by Authority figures  Obedience - Obeying a Man in a Uniform https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=16QMQXIjYVU Implications of Milgram study Ordinary people can be coerced or persuaded into obedience by insistent authorities This effect occurs even when what the people are coerced into doing that goes against the way they usually would behave Obedience is influenced by personality and by proximity to the authority figure For instance, if the teacher could see or had to touch the learner, obedience decreased. When the experimenter gave the orders over the telephone and thus was more removed from the situation, obedience dropped dramatically. Social influences on helping behavior Bystander intervention effect - failure to offer help by those who observe someone in need when other people are present. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OSsPfb up0ac In a study, people were placed in situations that indicated they should seek help Students seating with apathetic confederates did not seek assistance. Whereas students seating alone went for help quickly(Latané & Darley, 1968). Dangerous conformity: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vjP22 DpYYh8 Reasons behind bystander apathy 1) Diffusion of responsibility Bystanders expect other bystanders to help. Thus, the greater the number of people who witness someone in need of help, the less likely it is that any of them will step forward 2) Fear of making social blunders in ambiguous situations All the laboratory situations had some degree of ambiguity, and people may have worried that they would look foolish if they sought help that was not needed There is evidence that people feel less constrained from seeking help as the need for help becomes clearer 3) People are less likely to help when they are anonymous and can remain so Therefore, if you need help, it is often wise to point to a specific person and request his or her help by saying something like, “You, in the red shirt, call an ambulance!” 4) People weigh risk and benefits while deciding to help Attitudes affect behavior Formation of attitudes Mere exposure effect – the more people are exposed to things, the more they are going to like it Greater exposer leads to greater familiarity – resulting in more positive attitude Attitudes can be explicit as well as implicit  Contradiction between attitudes produces Cognitive dissonance Cognitive dissonance occurs when there is a contradiction between two attitudes or between an attitude and a behaviour People reduce dissonance by changing their attitudes or behaviours (Festinger, 1957) For example, people experience cognitive dissonance when they smoke even though they know that smoking might kill them. Dissonance > anxiety and tension > displeasure > behaviour that reduces dissonance Festinger and Carlsmith’s (1959) study Participants performed an extremely boring task for an hour Some participants were paid $20 to lie, and some were paid $1 Nearly all the participants subsequently provided the false information Participants who had been paid $1 rated the task much more favourably than those who had been paid $20 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=korGK0yGID o&feature=youtu.be One way to get people to change their attitudes is to change their behaviours first, using as few incentives as possible Attitudes can be changed through Persuasion Persuasion is active and conscious effort to change an attitude through the transmission of a message Persuasion is most likely to occur when people pay attention to a message, understand it, and find it convincing message must be memorable, so its impact lasts over time Source (who is delivering the message) Content Frequency (repeating the message over and over) Television ads for medicines and medical services often feature very attractive people playing the roles of physicians Persuasive communication changes attitudes through two way [highlighted by the elaboration likelihood model] Elaboration likelihood model Individual assignment Review of Stanford Prison Experiment (2015) movie Available on Netflix or prime?? If not on torrent The Stanford Prison Experiment Official Trailer https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3XN2X72jrFk