Psychology Past Paper PDF

Types of Learning and Conditioning Q1: What are the two main types of conditioning in psychology? A1: The two main types of conditioning are: Classical Conditioning: Learning through association (e.g., Pavlov’s dogs associating a bell with food). Operant Conditioning:...

Types of Learning and Conditioning Q1: What are the two main types of conditioning in psychology? A1: The two main types of conditioning are: Classical Conditioning: Learning through association (e.g., Pavlov’s dogs associating a bell with food). Operant Conditioning: Learning through consequences (e.g., Skinner’s experiments with rewards and punishments). Q2: What is the difference between positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement? A2: Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase a behavior (e.g., giving a child candy for doing homework). Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase a behavior (e.g., turning off a loud noise when a button is pressed). *Process of Memory* Q3: What are the three stages of the memory process? A3: The three stages are: 1. Encoding: Transforming information into a form that can be stored. 2. Storage: Maintaining information over time. 3. Retrieval: Accessing stored information when needed. Q4: What is the difference between short-term memory and long-term memory? A4: Short-term Memory: Holds information temporarily (about 7 items for 20-30 seconds). Long-term Memory: Stores information indefinitely and has a larger capacity. *Types of Memories* Q5: Name two types of long-term memory and give examples. A5: Explicit Memory (Declarative): Facts and events (e.g., remembering your birthday). Implicit Memory (Non-declarative): Skills and habits (e.g., riding a bike). *Amnesia* Q6: What are the two main types of amnesia? A6: Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories after an event. Retrograde Amnesia: Inability to recall past memories before an event. *Multiple Intelligences* Q7: Who proposed the theory of multiple intelligences, and what does it emphasize? A7: Howard Gardner proposed the theory, emphasizing that intelligence is not a single entity but consists of multiple types, such as linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, spatial, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic intelligences. *History of Psychology* Q8: Who is known as the “Father of Psychology,” and why? A8: Wilhelm Wundt is known as the “Father of Psychology” because he established the first psychology laboratory in 1879 and focused on studying mental processes scientifically. *Freud’s Levels of Consciousness* Q9: What are Freud’s three levels of consciousness? A9: 1. Conscious: What we are aware of (e.g., current thoughts). 2. Preconscious: Accessible memories (e.g., recalling a name). 3. Unconscious: Hidden drives and repressed thoughts (e.g., unresolved childhood conflicts). *Freud’s Psychosexual Development* Q10: What are the five stages of Freud’s psychosexual development? A10: 1. Oral Stage (0–1 year): Focus on mouth activities. 2. Anal Stage (1–3 years): Focus on bowel and bladder control. 3. Phallic Stage (3–6 years): Focus on genital awareness and the Oedipus complex. 4. Latency Stage (6–12 years): Sexual feelings are dormant. 5. Genital Stage (12+ years): Focus on mature sexual relationships. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Q11: Name and briefly describe the stages in Piaget’s theory. A11: 1. Sensorimotor (0–2 years): Learning through senses and actions; object permanence develops. 2. Preoperational (2–7 years): Use of language and symbols; egocentric thinking. 3. Concrete Operational (7–11 years): Logical thinking about concrete events; understanding conservation. 4. Formal Operational (12+ years): Abstract and hypothetical thinking. *Schools of Psychology* Q12: Name the main schools of psychology and their founders. A12: Structuralism: Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener. Functionalism: William James. Psychoanalysis: Sigmund Freud. Behaviorism: John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner. Gestalt Psychology: Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Köhler. Humanistic Psychology: Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. *Pillars of Psychology* Q13: What are the five pillars of psychology? A13: 1. Biological Psychology: Focuses on brain, genetics, and behavior. 2. Cognitive Psychology: Studies mental processes like memory and perception. 3. Developmental Psychology: Examines psychological growth over the lifespan. 4. Social Psychology: Investigates how individuals are influenced by others. 5. Clinical Psychology: Focuses on diagnosing and treating mental health issues. Types of Earning and Conditioning Classical Conditioning: A learning process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus to trigger a conditioned response (e.g., Pavlov’s dogs salivating to the sound of a bell). Operant Conditioning: A learning process where behaviors are influenced by the consequences that follow them, such as rewards (reinforcement) or punishments. Observational Learning: Learning that occurs through observing the behavior of others and imitating it. 2. Process of Memory Encoding: The process of converting sensory input (e.g., sights, sounds) into a form that can be stored in the brain. Storage: The process of maintaining information over time in the brain. This can be in short-term or long-term memory. Retrieval: The process of accessing stored information when needed.  Sensory Memory: Very short-term memory that stores sensory information (e.g., what you just saw or heard). Short-Term Memory: Memory that holds information temporarily for about 15-30 seconds. Long-Term Memory: Memory that can store information for an extended period, from hours to a lifetime. 3. Different Types of Memories Episodic Memory: A type of long-term memory that involves recollecting personal experiences and events. Semantic Memory: A type of long-term memory that involves general facts and knowledge, such as knowing that Paris is the capital of France. Procedural Memory: A type of memory for the performance of actions and skills (e.g., riding a bike or typing on a keyboard). Working Memory: A system used for temporarily holding and manipulating information needed for tasks like reasoning and comprehension. 4. Amnesia Retrograde Amnesia: A condition where a person cannot remember events that happened before a certain point in time, typically due to a brain injury or trauma. Anterograde Amnesia: A condition where a person is unable to form new memories after a specific event or trauma. Dissociative Amnesia: A type of memory loss typically caused by psychological stress or trauma, where a person forgets significant personal information or events. 5. Multiple Intelligences Multiple Intelligences Theory: A theory proposed by Howard Gardner, which suggests that intelligence is not a single entity but a combination of various abilities or intelligences, including linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic intelligence. 6. History of Psychology Psychology: The scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Structuralism: An early school of psychology, led by Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener, which focused on breaking down mental processes into the most basic components.  Functionalism: An early school of psychology, developed by William James, that focused on the functions of consciousness and how mental processes help organisms adapt to their environment. Behaviorism: A school of psychology, founded by John Watson and later expanded by B.F. Skinner, that focuses on observable behaviors and their modification through reinforcement and punishment. Humanistic Psychology: A perspective that emphasizes personal growth and self-actualization, developed by figures like Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. Cognitive Psychology: The study of mental processes like perception, memory, and problem-solving. 7. Freud’s Levels of Consciousness Conscious: The part of the mind that contains thoughts and perceptions of which we are currently aware. Preconscious: Thoughts that are not currently in the conscious mind but can be easily brought to consciousness (e.g., memories you can easily recall). Unconscious: The part of the mind containing repressed memories, desires, and experiences that influence behavior without our awareness. 8. Freud’s Psychosexual Development Theory Psychosexual Development: Freud’s theory that personality develops through a series of stages during childhood, each centered on a different erogenous zone (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital). Fixation: A condition where a person is “stuck” at one of the psychosexual stages, often due to over-gratification or under-gratification of needs during that stage. 9. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Cognitive Development: The process by which individuals acquire and understand knowledge through experience, interaction, and maturation. Sensorimotor Stage: Piaget’s first stage of cognitive development, where infants learn about the world through their senses and motor actions. Preoperational Stage: The second stage in Piaget’s theory, where children begin to use language but still lack logical reasoning and exhibit egocentrism. Concrete Operational Stage: The third stage where children develop logical thinking about concrete events but are still unable to handle abstract concepts.  Formal Operational Stage: The final stage in Piaget’s theory, where individuals can think abstractly and hypothetically. 10. Schools of Psychology Structuralism: The earliest school of psychology that aimed to analyze the structure of consciousness and the mind by identifying its basic components. Functionalism: Focused on how mental processes function in adapting to the environment and influenced the development of applied psychology fields. Behaviorism: A school of psychology that focused on studying observable behaviors and their relationship with environmental stimuli, largely ignoring the mental processes behind them. Psychoanalysis: Freud’s theory focusing on the unconscious mind and its influence on behavior and personality development. Humanistic Psychology: Emphasized the importance of free will, personal growth, and self-actualization, focusing on human potential and positive growth. Cognitive Psychology: The study of mental processes such as attention, memory, and problem-solving. 11. Pillars of Psychology Biological Psychology: Studies the relationship between the brain, nervous system, and behavior, exploring how physiological processes influence mental states and behavior. Cognitive Psychology: Focuses on mental processes such as perception, memory, decision-making, and problem-solving. Behavioral Psychology: Focuses on observable behaviors and how they are influenced by the environment (learning through conditioning). Social Psychology: Examines how social interactions and group dynamics influence individual behavior and mental states. Clinical Psychology: Involves diagnosing and treating mental health disorders and working with individuals to improve mental well-being. 1. Emotion What Are Emotions? Emotions are psychological and physical responses to situations. They:  Help us survive: Fear warns us about danger. Guide decisions: Happiness motivates us to repeat actions that bring joy. Connect us with others: Love strengthens relationships. Parts of Emotions: 1. How we feel: The mental experience of an emotion (e.g., sadness feels heavy). 2. Body reactions: Physical changes like sweating, trembling, or a faster heartbeat. 3. Actions: How we show emotions (e.g., smiling, frowning, yelling). Examples of Basic Emotions (Paul Ekman): Happiness: Feeling joy or pleasure. Sadness: Feeling down or disappointed. Anger: Feeling upset or frustrated. Fear: Feeling threatened or scared. Disgust: Feeling repelled by something unpleasant. Surprise: Feeling shocked or amazed. 2. Motivation What is Motivation? Motivation is the drive that pushes us to take action, like studying, exercising, or eating. Types of Motivation: 1. Intrinsic Motivation: Doing something because you enjoy it. Example: Painting because it makes you happy. 2. Extrinsic Motivation: Doing something for rewards or to avoid punishment. Example: Working hard to earn money or studying to pass exams. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: A famous theory explaining human motivation in five levels: 1. Basic Needs: Food, water, and sleep. 2. Safety Needs: Security, protection, and stability. 3. Love and Belonging: Friendship, family, and relationships. 4. Esteem Needs: Self-respect, confidence, and recognition from others. 5. Self-Actualization: Becoming the best version of yourself. Example: Learning new skills, creating art, or helping others. Real-Life Example of Motivation: A hungry student (Basic Need) studies hard (Esteem Need) to become a doctor (Self-Actualization). 3. Personality What is Personality? Personality refers to the unique traits, behaviors, and patterns that define who you are. The Big Five Personality Traits: 1. Openness: Curious, imaginative, open to new ideas. Example: Trying a new food or learning a language. 2. Conscientiousness: Organized, responsible, and reliable. Example: Always finishing assignments on time. 3. Extraversion: Outgoing, talkative, and energetic. Example: Enjoying parties or group activities. 4. Agreeableness:  Kind, cooperative, and caring. Example: Helping a friend in need. 5. Neuroticism: Prone to anxiety, worry, or mood swings. Example: Feeling nervous about public speaking. Personality Development: Influences: Genetics, environment (family, culture), and experiences. Personality Testing: Tools like the Big Five Inventory and MBTI help measure personality. How Emotion, Motivation, and Personality Work Together Example: Your fear (emotion) of failing an exam motivates you to study hard. Your conscientiousness (personality) makes you stick to a study schedule.