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Development Through the Lifespan Chapter 6 Emotional and Social Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood Erikson’s Theory of Infant and Toddler Personality • Freud’s emphasis on the importance of the parent-infant relationships during feeding • Not the amount of food or oral stimulation offer...
Development Through the Lifespan Chapter 6 Emotional and Social Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood Erikson’s Theory of Infant and Toddler Personality • Freud’s emphasis on the importance of the parent-infant relationships during feeding • Not the amount of food or oral stimulation offered; but the quality of caregiving • Relieving discomfort • Gentle holding • Patient waiting • Weaning in case of less interest Erikson’s Theory of Infant and Toddler Personality • No parent can be perfectly in tune with the needs • Balance of care sympathetic and loving • Trust Expects the world to be good and gratifying Confident about venturing out and exploring Kindness and compassion of others Erikson’s Theory of Infant and Toddler Personality • Freud the manner of toilet training • Erikson Only one of many influential experiences • Decide for themselves not just in toileting but also in other situations • Do not criticize or attack the child when s/he fails to achieve new skills • Desire for independence should be tolerated and understood • Overcontrol feels forced and shamed • Undercontrol doubts ability to control impulses and act competently Psychosocial Stages During Infancy and Toddlerhood Age Erikson’s Stage First year Basic trust versus mistrust Second year Autonomy versus shame/ doubt Needed from Caregivers Responsiveness Suitable guidance Reasonable choices Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Possible Consequences related to Adjustment • Intimate relationships • Over dependence • Chronic low self-esteem • Rejection sensitivity • Silencing the self behaviors Emotional Development • High influence in organizing social relationships, exploration of environment, and the discovery of the self • Energize development • Which emotions an infant is experiencing? • Vocalizations • Body movements • Facial expressions • UNIVERSAL Emotional Development • Basic emotions: Happiness, interest, surprise, fear, anger, sadness, and disgust • Evolutionary history of promoting survival • Attraction to pleasant stimulation and withdrawal from unpleasant stimulation • Mirroring aspects of the baby’s diffuse emotional behavior (Gergely & Watson, 1999) • Face – voice – posture differ by environmental events When? Happiness • Encourage parents (and others) to be affectionate and stimulating • When full, during REM sleep, in response to gentle touches and sounds, hearing mother’s voice • End of the 1st month Suddenly moved or dynamic objects • Changes in smiling – Increasing sensitivity to visual patterns • Laughter Faster info processing than smiling Happiness • 6 months More when interacting with familiar individuals Result? • 8-10 months Becomes a deliberate act • 10-12 months Vary with context • Cheek-raised • Reserved, muted • Mouth-open Anger and Sadness • Hunger, medical procedures, changes in body temperature, too much or little stimulation • 4 to 6 months increase in frequency and intensity • Cognitive and motor development • Parents Relieve the infant’s distress and discourage them from further leaving • Sadness < Anger • Caregiver-infant communication Disrupted Fear • Increase in the second half of the first year • Older new toys • Younger heights Fear • Temperament • Past Experiences • The Current Situation • When the infant shows positive and curious behavior? • Cross-cultural differences in Stranger Anxiety? • Efe hunters of Congo, West Africa (maternal death) (Tronick, Morelli, & Ivey, 1992) • Israel, Kibbutzim babies (Saarni et al., 2006) Fear • The familiar caregiver Secure base • Two conflicting tendencies: • Interest and friendliness • Avoidance - Fear • Cognitive development Effective discrimination of threatening and nonthreatening people and situations • Strategies to cope with it First Appearance of Basic Emotions Smile: from birth Happiness Social smile: 6–10 weeks Laugh: 3–4 months General distress: from birth Anger: 4–6 months Anger First fears: 2nd half of first year Stranger anxiety: 8–12 months Fear Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Understanding Emotions of Others 3-4 months sensitive to structure and timing of face to face interactions Like me effect the start of empathy 5 months match the emotion in a voice with the appropriate face of the speaking person Signals meaningful Understanding Emotions of Others Emotional contagion/ an automatic process Operant conditioning early infancy 3-4 months Sensitive to the structure and the timing of face-to-face interactions Development of expectations Like me effect Recognize other’s facial expressions 4–5 months Match the emotion in a voice with the appropriate face of a speaking person Emotional expression not only has a meaning but also meaningful reaction to a specific object or event Social referencing around 8–10 months Social Referencing Actively seeking emotional info from a trusted person in an uncertain situation (from 8 to 10 months) Visual cliff studies? Voice vs. facial expression (Vaishcan & use to caregivers Striano, 2004)? teach children how to teach children how to react Social Referencing Around the middle of the second year others’ emotional reactions may differ from their own Social referencing compare their own and others’ evaluations of the events Repacholi & Gopnik’s (1997) study Brocoli vs. crackers 18 months olds Self-Conscious Emotions Shame Embarrassment Guilt Envy Pride Second, higher-order set of feelings Injury vs. enhancement of the sense of self Emerge middle of second year (18-to-24 months) Children become aware of self as separate and unique Envy (3) Require adult instruction about when to feel emotions Cross-cultural implications? Emotional Self-Regulation Strategies we use for adjusting own state of emotional intensity Requires effortful control Grows over first year (what are the two contributing factors (physical and social?) A good start in first two years contributes to autonomy and mastery of cognitive and social skills Caregivers contribute to child’s self-regulation style Early moths Little control over regulation Soothing interventions of caregivers Emotional Self-Regulation Frontal lobe and cerebral cortex development tolerance for stimulation 2-4 months caregivers initiating face-to-face play and attention to objects Arouse pleasure while adjusting the pace of their behavior 4-6 months the ability to shift attention control their emotions At the end of the first year crawling and walking regulate feelings by approaching or retreating from different situations Emotional Self-Regulation The sex difference Parents Suppress (-) emotions by imitation of emotional expressions of interest, happiness, and surprise Boys > Girls Result Very known gender difference in emotional expressiveness Culture again USA vs. Japanese and Chinese infants Emotional Self-Regulation The parents’ role in reading and respond contingently to the emotional cues Reinforcing the baby’s rapid increase in distress impatient, in anger, wait until it’s too late Brain structures which buffer stress fail to develop properly Result (primary and secondary)? The methods of reinforcement of the socially approved ways of expressing emotions Emotional Self-Regulation End of the 2nd year vocabulary for emotions Rapid development for emotional expression words Temper tantrums Reject the demands Emo.lly sympathetic but set limits Distract the child from prohibited activities by offering acceptable alternatives Suggest better ways to handle adult refusals Temperament and Development Cheerful Active and energetic Calm Cautious Prone to angry outbursts Easily distracted Nervous DigitalVision Temperament and Development Early appearing, stable individual differences in reactivity and self-regulation Reactivity: Speed and intensity of… emotional arousal attention motor activity Self-regulation: Strategies modifying reactivity Cornerstones of adult personality traits Temperament and Development Thomas & Chase (1956) New York Longitudinal Study: 141 children, parent interviews from early infancy to adulthood Chances of experiencing psychological problems or being protected from the effects of negative life events Parenting practices that can modify a child’s temperaments Structure of Temperament Originally Nine dimensions Activity level: Ratio of active periods Rhythmicity: Regularity of body functions (e.g. sleep, wakefulness, hunger) Distractibility: Degree to which stimulation from the environment alters the behavior Approach/Withdrawal: Response to a new object, food, or person Adaptability: Ease with which the child adapts to changes in the environment Attention span and persistence: Amount of time devoted to an activity Intensity of reaction: Energy level of response Threshold of responsiveness: Intensity of stimulation required to evoke a response Quality of mood: Amount of friendly, joyful behavior compared to Structure of Temperament – 40% Difficult – 10% Easy Slow-to-warm-up Unclassified – 35% – 15% Structure of Temperament Easy – Quick establishment of regular routines in infancy, cheerful, adaptable Difficult – Irregular in daily routines, low adaptation, negative and intense Slow-to-warm-up – Inactive, mild and low-key reactions, negative in mood, slow in adjustment Unclassified – Unique blends of temperamental characteristics Structure of Temperament Difficult Anxiety and withdrawal behaviors Slow-to-warm-up < Difficult; however… Excessive fearfulness and constricted behaviors in the late preschool and school Rothbart’s Model Activity level Attention span/persistence Fearful distress Irritable distress Positive affect Effortful Control (Self-Regulation Dimension): The capacity to voluntarily control or suppress a dominant, reactive response in order to plan and execute a more adaptive response Measuring Temperament Interviews or questionnaires given to parents Behavioral ratings of others Lab observations Advantages and disadvantages of parental reports Moderately related to professional judgments Advantages and disadvantages of home and lab observations Combination of methods Biological Basis for Temperament Inhibited, Shy React negatively, withdraw from new stimuli High heart rates, stress hormones and stress symptoms Higher right hemisphere frontal cortex activity Uninhibited, Sociable React positively, approach new stimuli Low heart rates, stress hormones and stress symptoms Higher left hemisphere frontal cortex activity Stability of Temperament Since develops with age low to moderate stability better indicator after age 3 Styles of responding are better established Areas in the frontal lobes (suppressing impulses) Impulse suppression ability Depends on the type and strength of the reactive emotion Factors affecting the stability of temperament Biological Capacity for effortful control and success of it Experience Genetics and Environment in Temperament Genetic influences Responsible for about half of individual differences Ethnic and sex differences Nutrition Caregiving Environmental Cultural variations influences Gender stereotyping Role of siblings Genetic Influences Identical twins > Fraternal twins American vs. Japanese and Chinese Less active, irritable, and vocal – More easily soothed and better at quieting themselves (impulse control) Gender differences More active, irritable when frustrated, more impulsive Vary with the temperamental trait at hand and with the age Heritability estimates Higher for expressions of negative emotions Less in infancy than in childhood and later years Environmental Effects Persistent nutritional (even after dietary improvement) and emotional deprivation alterations in temperament (e.g. Christmas Carol ) Orphanages Easily overwhelmed by stressful events Poor regulation of emotion Inattentions and weak response control Why the heredity and environment combine to influence temperament? The effect of parents’ tendency to emphasize unique characteristics of each child and their expectancies (e.g.?) Temperament and Child Rearing: The Goodness-of-Fit Model (Thomas & Chess, 1977) Combines genetics and environment Child-rearing to match temperament Parents of difficult children By the 2nd year Life conditions affecting the effective parenting Collectivism vs. individualism The examples of change of evaluations for shy children in East Shyness and Adjustment in China Figure 6.1 Development of Attachment The strong affectionate tie we have with special people in our lives to feel pleasure when we interact with them and to be comforted by their nearness in times of stress. 2nd half of the first year familiar ones who respond to their needs. Freud vs. contemporary research: Infant-mother relationship all later relationships Continuing quality of the parentchild relationships Development of Attachment Theoretical debate over attachment Freud vs. behaviorists: Feeding emotional bond Learn to prefer mother Paired with tension relief as she feeds the baby Harlow & Zimmerman’s (1959) study Rhesus monkeys Terry-cloth and wire-mesh “surrogate mothers” Similar in human infants People other than those who feed them Blankets, teddy bears Ethological Theory of Attachment Infants’ emotional tie to the caregiver as an evolved response that promotes survival Konrad Lorenz’s studies of imprinting John Bowlby (1969) Not the feeding but safety and competence Begins as a set of signals calling the adult A true affectionate bond How many phases of attachment? Ethological Theory of Attachment Four Phases of Attachment 1. Preattachment (birth to 6 weeks) Not attached yet, can recognize mother’s smell and voice. 2. Attachment-in-the-making (6 weeks to 6-8 months) Familiar vs. stranger; development of sense of trust but still no protest in case of separation. 3. Clear-cut attachment (6-8 months to 18 months-2 years) Separation anxiety; occurs depending on the temperament and current situation; increases between 6 and 15 months; not only protest but also maintain presence; secure base from which to explore. Ethological Theory of Attachment Four Phases of Attachment 4. Formation of a reciprocal relationship (18 months – 2 years and on) Rapid growth in representation and language; separation protest declines; negotiate using requests and persuasion to alter mother’s goals. Internal Working Models Construct an enduring affectionate tie to the caregiver that they can use as a secure base in the parent’s absence serves as an internal working model Set of expectations about the availability of attachment figures and their likelihood of providing support during the times of stress Vital part of personality Testing for Internal Working Models of Attachment Figure 6.2 Measuring the Security of Attachment Strange Situation Between 1 and 2 years of age Eight short episodes Brief separations and reunion Secure: May or may not cry; actively seek contact when returned; crying reduces immediately. Avoidant: Unresponsive to parent’s absence or presence; not distressed when separated; no clinging; avoid or slow to greet. Measuring the Security of Attachment Resistant: Distressed when separated; combine clinginess with angry, resistive behavior (e.g. hitting and/or pushing); not comforted easily; continue crying. Disorganized/disoriented: The greatest insecurity; confused/contradictory behaviors in reunion; odd, frozen posture; dazed facial expression. Types of Attachment – 60% Avoidant – 15% Resistant – 10% Secure Disorganized/disoriented 15% – Measuring the Security of Attachment Attachment Q-Sort (Waters et al., 1995) Suitable for children between 1 to 4 years old Either the parent or a highly trained observer 90 behaviors into 9 categories ranging from “highly descriptive” to “not at all descriptive” of the child Child greets the mother with a big smile when she enters the room If mother moves very far, child follows along Drawbacks: Time-consuming Does not indicate patterns of insecurity Advantage: May better reflect parent-infant relationship in everyday life For secure kids Observers’ sorting Strange Situation Parents’ No (especially those of insecure children) Stability of Attachment Secure and stable for middle-SES babies Moving from insecure to secure well- adjusted mothers with positive family and friendship ties Moving from security to insecurity or from one insecure pattern to another Low-SES families with stress and little social support Weinfield, Sroufe, & Egeland, 2000) Secure Insecure in adulthood Child maltreatment, maternal depression, and poor family functioning Secure > Insecure The exception: Disorganized/disoriented As stable as secure (70% stays the same) Cultural Variations in Attachment Security Figure 6.3 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Factors That Affect Attachment Security Opportunity for attachment Institutionalized babies 3 and 12 months A nurse with 7 other kids Without a consistent caregiver to replace the mother Depression After age 4 placed in homes Excessive desire for attention; overfriendliness towards strangers; few friendships First 6 to 8 months or more in orphanages in Romania Cognitive impairments, peer rejection, inattention and hyperactivity, and disruptive behavior As early as 7 months disrupted formation of neural structures involved in reading emotional expressions Factors That Affect Attachment Security Quality of caregiving Sensitive caregiving (responding promptly, consistently, and appropriately; holding tenderly and carefully) in different cultures and SES groups Interactional synchrony – a sensitively tuned emotional dance, in which the caregiver responds in a well-timed, rhythmic, appropriate fashion Match emotional states; especially the positive ones Relaxed, flexible style of communication Cultures vary in their view of sensitivity toward infants (Gusii vs. Puerto Rico) Factors That Affect Attachment Security Quality of caregiving Avoidant Overstimulating, intrusive care, overwhelming interaction Want to escape Resistant Inconsistent care Unresponsive to signals; interfering in exploration Overly dependent as well as angry at lack of involvement Child abuse and neglect all forms of insecurity Persistently depressed mothers, low marital satisfaction, suffering from traumatic event Factors That Affect Attachment Security Infant characteristics At-risk newborns premature, birth complications, and newborn illnesses especially in families under stress Temperament reactive and difficult Disharmonious relationship by age 2 maternal insensitivity and infant insecurity Attachment 2/3 of siblings similar attachment patterns yet different temperament parents adjust Interventions for parents successful Parents’ capacity is important own personality and stressful conditions children with illnesses, disabilities, and difficult temperaments are at risk Factors That Affect Attachment Security Family circumstances Job loss, a failing marriage, and financial difficulties decreased sensitivity In countries like Turkey Assistance from grandparents and relatives (+) Parents’ internal working models Evaluate childhood memories of attachment experiences objectivity and balance in discussions of these memories (either positive or negative) Dismiss the importance of these or describe them in angry, confused ways insecure infants Extremely negative feelings (e.g. hostile or fearful), while also viewing themselves as “bad” and deserving of unkind treatment disorganized/disoriented infants Factors That Affect Attachment Security Family circumstances Not a direct transfer to the child Internal working models reconstructed memories affected by… Experiences, personality, and the current life satisfaction Negative life events impair the link between attachment security and secure internal working models in adulthood The way we view our childhood… Resilience Ability to come to terms with negative events To integrate new information into our working models To look back on our own parents in an understanding, forgiving way Multiple Attachments Preference for mother in distressed, anxious conditions decreases over the 2nd year When not distressed approach, vocalize to, and smile at both parents equally Fathers Siblings Grandparents Professional caregivers Fathers and Attachment Fathers as playmates, mothers as caregivers in many cultures Play also differ with fathers Mothers provide toys, talk, and gently play conventional games (peakaboo) Fathers highly arousing physical play with bursts of excitement that increase as play progresses Help prepare the child to venture confidently into their environment and to approach unfamiliar situations Fathers and Attachment Fathers in dual earner couples devote 85% as much time as mothers (3,5 hours a day) Highly involved fathers (especially if they are the primary caregiver Less gender-stereotyped Sympathetic, friendly personalities Have fathers who were more involved rearing them Regard parenthood as an especially enhancing experience Tendency to be a young father in Western cultures Important factors in attachment sensitivity warmth family attitudes, relationships Siblings and Attachment Majority of children have siblings 80% of North American and European children Adjustment for preschoolers Security declines over 2 and those with distressed mothers old enough to feel threatened and displaced Rich emotional relationship not only resentment, they also show affection and concern Siblings and Attachment By the end of the 1st year much more time with the older sibling In the 2nd year imitate and join play with older siblings Parents must promote positive relationships Differences in temperament emerge Good parent relationships serves as a model of effective problem-solving Attachment and Later Development Secure attachment related to positive outcomes in: Preschool higher in self-esteem, social skills, and empathy Middle childhood (age 11) Socially competent Adolescence and young adulthood More supportive social networks, formed happier and more stable romantic relationships, and attained higher levels of education Continuity of caregiving May link infant attachment and later development Disorganized/disoriented children getting persistent insensitive caregiving Both internalizing (fear and anxiety) and externalizing (anger, hostility, delinquency, aggression) problems Attachment and Later Development What kind of factors are related to resilience? Attachment and Later Development Self-Development During the First Two Years Both objects and people achieve an independent, stable existence knowledge of the self as a separate, permanent entity Self-Awareness Beginnings of Self-Awareness: At birth they are physically distinct from other their surroundings (reflexes to own touch vs. others’ touch) Intermodal perception supports the beginnings of self-awareness Feel their own touch, feel and watch their limbs move, feel and hear themselves cry intermodal matches that differentiate their own body from other humans and objects Self-Development During the First Two Years Self-Recognition During the 2nd year aware of self’s physical features 9-to-28 months no awareness in front of mirror Self-recognition identification of the self as a physically unique being Point in photos Around age 3 recognize their own shadows Self-Development Selfawareness From birth Aided by intermodal perception Emerges in 2nd year Helped by acting on Selfrecognition environment and noticing effects Aided by self-awareness, selfEmpathy conscious emotions Self-Recognition and Compliance German and Greek mothers distal parenting style Emphasizing independence More face-to-face communication and object stimulation Less body contact and physical stimulation Nso mothers of Cameron proximal parenting style Emphasizing interdependence Later attainment of self-recognition Earlier emergence of compliance with adult requests Self-Recognition and Compliance Figure 6.4 Empathy The ability to understand another’s emotional states and feel with that person, or respond emotionally similar ways. Start to give others what they themselves find comforting. A clearer awareness of how to upset others Categorical Self Between 18 and 30 months Categorize self and others into social categories age gender physical characteristics good or bad Use to organize behavior Gender-stereotyped toys (18 months) Then, parents encourage by positively responding Effortful Control Effortful control inhibiting impulses managing negative emotions behaving acceptably After age 2 Children need awareness of self as separate and autonomous confidence in directing own actions memory for instructions Compliance Understanding and obeying caregivers’ wishes and standards Emerges between 12–18 months Toddlers assert autonomy by sometimes not complying Warm, sensitive care-giving increases compliance Delay of Gratification: Waiting for an appropriate time and place to engage in a tempting act Between ages 1,5 and 3 Family Life Compliance Children advanced in attention and language development Better in delay of gratification Girls are better than boys Talking to self, signing, and looking away Family Life Helping Toddlers Develop Compliance and Self-Control Respond with sensitivity and support. Give advance notice of change in activities. Offer many prompts and reminders. Reinforce self-controlled behavior. Encourage sustained attention. Support language development. Increase rules gradually.