PSY 101 Preliminary Reviewer - Introduction to Psychology

Introduction to Psychology **\#PRELIMINARY REVIEWER** **LESSON 1: NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGY** **Psychology**: a scientific study of human behavior and mental processes. **Behavior**---[observable behavior] (e.g., eating, running, talking, etc.). Mental processes---[not directly observable/complex proc...

Introduction to Psychology **\#PRELIMINARY REVIEWER** **LESSON 1: NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGY** **Psychology**: a scientific study of human behavior and mental processes. **Behavior**---[observable behavior] (e.g., eating, running, talking, etc.). Mental processes---[not directly observable/complex processes] (e.g., thoughts, feelings, reasoning, memories, etc.) Etymologically, psychology comes from two Greek words: *psyche*, meaning mind or soul, and \"*logos*,\" meaning study. Psychology is the [study of the \"mind\" or \"soul.\"] **[Major theorists and pioneers who made a name in the history of Psychology ]** - - 1879: *Wilhelm Wundt*: Psychology is the study of conscious experiences. - 1890: ***William James*** studied the adaptive functions of behavior. Established psychology in the U.S. Published critical text entitled **\"Principles of Psychology."** - 1924: ***John B. Watson*** asserts that psychology is focused on the study of *covert (unobservable)* and *overt (observable)* behavior. School of psychology known as **behaviorism**. - One says that stimulus is a physical condition which is external (overt) unobservable behavior or internal (covert) observable behavior. - **Internal stimulus** comes from [within the body] as felt headache, stomach pam, abdominal cramps, hunger, feelings, or thought. - **External stimulus** originates from [the environment] like noise, pinch, heat, cold or warmth. - **Response,** is [a behavior that results from the stimuli.] Response can be physical, mental, and glandular like salivating upon smelling a delicious food. The earliest concept of psychology was viewed as *speculative* (vision or observation) and metaphysical (beyond the essential of reality), and related to animism. **Animism** is the belief that everything in the surroundings is inhabited by supernatural beings. **Plato**, who believed that human awareness was a continuation of pre-existing consciousness, attested that the *soul governs behavior*, and referred this to three functions the [rational situated in the head, the emotional found in the heart and the irrational located in the abdomen. ] **Aristotle,** a philosopher, based his *study on the mental life of man* through observation, experience and memory. He attributed the process of memory to primacy, frequency, contiguity, recency. vividness, and similarity. **William James** an American attests that psychology pertains to finding out *[how psychological nature helps people adapt themselves to a complex and changing world.]* He transplanted psychology to the United States making him the first American Psychologist. **Sir France Galton\'s** influence in psychology had *[fathered mental tests and the study of individual.]* *[differences.]* **Sigmund Freud**, an Austrian proposed the *[theory of personality and the interpretation of dreams.]* **Ivan Pavlov**, a Russian physiologist *[pioneered the study of learning. ]* **Jean Piaget**, a Swiss biologist was *[concerned with the observation of children.]* **Albert Bandura**, a psychologist, biologist, *[a learning theorist, first proposed social learning,]* can be credited for having noted observable learning. **B.F Skinner**, an American psychologist and behaviorist *[invented his operant conditioning]*. The word psychology made its *first appearance in the English language in 1693.* It can be said that in Germany four men were considered to be the first to apply experimental method on the subject matter of psychology: **Wilhelm Wundt**- founded the first formal psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, in 1693, this event marked the formal birth of psychology as a science, thus Wilhelm Wundt became the \"father of modern psychology." **Gustav Theodore Fechner** in *his experiment showed the relationship between the physical qualities of a sensory stimulus and the result of the sensation*, [which requires the understanding of human characteristics that make sensation possible. ] **Herman Von Helmholtz** has a peculiar interest in the *[speed of neural impulses, audition. and vision that contributes to the knowledge of sensation. ]* **Gustav Theodore Fechner and Herman Von Helmholtz** were both interested in the study of behavioral impulses not for itself but because it was related to the problem in physics, they were considered *\"Grandfathers of Psychology.\"* **Ernst Weber**, an anatomist and physiologist began his work that results in *[the development of the method of measuring the magnitude of sensation particularly the sense of touch.]* ***[\ ]*APPROACHES TO PSYCHOLOGY** 1\. **External**, an approach that is *behaviorism.* **Behaviorism** emphasizes the role of environment in the shaping of behavior. 2\. **Internal**, [cognitive psychology] expounded by *Jean Piaget.* 3\. **Holistic**, whole approach deals with [Gestalt Psychology.] 4\. **Psychoanalysis-** deals with [unconscious motives and irrational forces] embedded within the *psych*e that is thought to influence behavior. **\ PSYCHOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES** *Psychology in the Philippines started in 1910,* two years after the founding of the University of the Philippines, Psychology was being taught at the Department of Philosophy and Psychology in the College of Liberal Arts. - - Psychology, separated from the Department of Philosophy, and Psychology became a part of the College of Education when this college was created in 1918. The Department was headed by Dr. Townsend who continued to take charge of the Department of Philosophy at the College of Liberal Arts. **GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY** 1\. **To describe behavior.** This helps one to know what the nature of behavior is. 2\. **To understand behavior.** This tries to explain and interpret facts about behavior. 3\. **To predict behavior.** To make prediction, a person may guess how one thinks or acts. 4\. **To control behavior.** This is achieved after describing, understanding and predicting behavior. 5\. **To improve behavior.** **SCHOOL OF PSYCHOLOGY** **\"Schools of Psychology**\" is made up of a group of psychologists who are associated with the leaders of the movement. They have the same ideas about psychology and how it should be studied. 1. **Structuralism** - was expound by **Edward Bradford Titchener**, an outstanding pupil of Wilhelm Wundt. Structuralism is based on the idea that the concern of psychology is to *[analyze consciousness into basic unit of experiences.]* Conscious experience was divided into 3 basic components: - Physical sensations - Affections or feelings - Images 2. **Functionalism** - was established by **William James**, the first American recognized psychologist. This school is concerned with utility of how conscious processes function in the adjustment of man to his environment. James believed that psychology should focus on *[true- to-life everyday experiences. ]* 3. **Gestalt Psychology** - This is an approach in psychology that focuses on the organization of perception and [thinking in a \"whole\" sense rather than on the individual elements of perception]. The \"*credo*\" is that [the whole is greater than the sum of all parts.] Gestalt is a German word that is simply translated to *\"unified form\" or \"overall shape\",* it is a school of psychology that is attributed more to **Max Wertheimer**, who is a German. 4. **Psychodynamic** - This is School of Psychology was founded by **Sigmund Freud** an Austrian. This school was based on his *[theory of unconscious motivation and its effect on human behavior.]* 5. **Behaviorism** - **John Watson** who fathered behaviorism stressed *[the use of objective facts gathered through actual observation of what an individual does and does not do based on what he thinks about something.]* According to Watson psychology should study observable and measurable observations. **BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY** **General Psychology** studies the underlying *principles of human behavior*. [It tries to interpret how and why people behave the way they do in specific situation.] **Experimental Psychology** borders on *pure research*, *it points to the methodology by which behavioral processes are studied and experimented, it studies the process of sensation perception, learning and thinking.* **Developmental Psychology** - focuses on the various *stages of development from pre-natal to old age,* specifically how people grow and change throughout the course of their lives. **Comparative Psychology** - investigates the *[behavioral differences of various organisms and species to discover similarities and differences between animals and humans.]* **Educational Psychology** - deals with *psychological problems in the field of education*, and [how the educational process affects the students.] **Social Psychology** - is the study that centers on *all aspects of people\'s interpersonal behavior* -[social thoughts, feelings, attraction, aggression and social influence.] **Industrial-Organizational Psychology** (Feldman, \'93) is the study that deals with the *[psychology of the workplace, the employees\' motivation and productivity, job satisfaction and leadership. ]* **Environmental Psychology** - is concerned with the *[relationship of people to the physical environment]*. **Personality Psychology**, (Bacon 93) is founded on sound individual differences, characteristics or traits, a person displays across a vast range of situations. **Clinical Psychology** - involves *the application of clinical method of diagnosis and treatments* to persons who are severely disturbed and those suffering from emotional and adjustment problems, mental illness, delinquency, drug addiction are the concerns of clinical psychology. **Cognitive Psychology** - focuses directly on the *study of higher mental process like thinking, learning, reasoning, decision making, problem solving, language and memory.* Cognitive psychology which is a new development in the field of psychology includes computer science which provides the cognitive psychologists tools for information processing model and \"[artificial intelligence\" (Al).] **Forensic Psychology** is a division of *applied psychology that studies legal issues like knowing what criteria determine whether an accused person is mentally competent to stand trial,* it is, likewise, [concerned with the collections, examinations and presentations of psychological evidences for judicial purposes.] **Community Psychology** - is a *[field of specialization that focuses on mental health of the community]*, not on individuals, it is concerned with the problems of the aged, illegal drug problems and rehabilitation, and the treatment of prisoners. **Health Psychology** - is a branch of psychology that examines the *[relationship of psychological factors and physical illnesses or diseases.]* It also deals with the prevention of diseases and promotions of good health. **Counseling Psychology** - is concerned with normal problems of *[everyday living and guides individuals in their normal development.]* **Engineering Psychology** is a developing specialized area in psychology. It is concerned with *the development of man - machine system,* it is fitting man and machine together, such that both functions well. This branch of psychology is referred to as \"human engineering." **Consumer Psychology** - is a specialized branch of Psychology which is concerned with the *[buying habits of consumers and the effects of advertisements on people. ]* **Legal Psychology** is another new developing field in psychology which involves the *[application of psychology in legal proceedings. ]* **Sports Psychology** - studies *[psychological factors like sports social, mental and emotional problems of athletes and other individuals involved in sports and other exercises. ]* **School Psychology** is the branch of psychology devoted *[to assessing children in the elementary and secondary schools on how they deal with academic or emotional problems and developing solutions to their problems. ]* **Abnormal Psychology** because *life today is complex*. [Individuals are facing lots of competitions, frustrations and complexities, which create constant pressures thus making them experience at times some psychological abnormalities]. Abnormal Psychology guides the individuals to cope with these difficulties of life. **Child Psychology** - this points to the [concept *that childhood which starts at 2 years and ends at about 10,11 or 12 years is a critical period in their life span*]. **Growth and development** are rapid during these stages which affect their future life. Introduction to Psychology **\#PRELIMINARY REVIEWER** **LESSON 2: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT** **NATURE OF DEVELOPMENT** **Growth** refers to the [quantitative changes, which is the physical changes in height, weight, size and the structures of the internal organs and brain.] **Development** points to [the qualitative changes, that is concerned with progressive means directional forward] (Arenas, 2010.) **Some Significant Facts about Development** - Early foundations are critical. The attitudes, habits and patterns of behavior laid down during the carny years determine to a large extent how the individuals can successfully adjust to life in their growing up years. - According to White (Hurlock, 1992), the origin of human competence is found in the critical *period between 8 to 18 months*, she contends that the early experiences during this time determine future competences than any time before or after. - **Maturation** is the *[unfolding or coming out of the individuals' inherent traits.]* There are two functions of maturation; *phylogenetic function and ontogenetic function.* - **Phylogenetic Function of Maturation** is the *[function that is common to all individuals like sitting, crawling, walking jumping and running. ]* - **Ontogenetic Function of Maturation.** -is the *function specific to individuals like writing, swimming driving a car playing specific instruments which are acquired through learning.* [Learning is a development that comes from exercise and effort of the individuals.] Development follows a definite, expected and orderly patterns. - there are orderly patterns of physical, motor, and intellectual development. *Physical and motor development* follow the laws of developmental direction, which are the cephalocaudal law and proximodistal lave. - **Cephalocaudal law** pertains to the development spread out over the body from head to foot. - **Proximodistal law** refers to the development spread outward from the central axis (middle) of the body to the extremities (e.g. arms and legs). All individuals are different. Individuals are born biologically and genetically different, even identical twins. Psychologists attest that *developmental differences increase rather than decrease as individuals grow from childhood, to adolescence, to adulthood and even to old age.* Each stage of development has characteristic patterns of behavior. - **Equilibrium** in when *individuals adapt easily to the demands of their environments* [which result to easy personal and social adjustments.] - **Disequilibrium** - is when the *individuals experience difficulties in their adaptation*, [as a result make poor personal and social adjustment.] **FACTORS OF DEVELOPMENT** **Heredity or nature** is the *[transmission of traits or characteristics from parents or ancestors to offspring.]* It provides the raw materials from which the individual is made up. It carries the hereditary potentials like physical, mental, social, emotional, and morals. **Environment or nurture** is the [sum total of the forces or experiences that a person attains from conception to old age.] Although hereditary traits are subject to variation yet they depend on the limits set by environment for instance body size is hereditary. Let us say that one is born thin or slender but it can be altered by what a person does probably through exercise, nutrition and health habits which are governed by environment. Environment constantly interacts with heredity to shape a person to what he will be or what he will do. **THE BEGINNING OF LIFE** Female at birth has about [400,000 immature ova in her two ovaries, right and left.] *One ovum is the size of a period (found at the end of this sentence and the largest cell of the female human body*. Generally, [every menstrual cycle the ovary expels one mature ovum to the fallopian tube during ovulation.] **Ovulation** is *[the process of escape of one mature ovum from the ovary to the fallopian tube]*. The **sperm** is an *[elongated cell that is shaped like a tadpole.]* It is the *smallest cell of the male human body*. It is only 1/100 inch from the head to the tail. The *male gonad or testes produce several millions of sperm a day (*Paqulia 1993) and are ejaculated in the semen during sexual activity. [Life starts from the moment of fertilization where conception begins.] **Fertilization** is [the meeting of *the ripe female egg cell, called ovum from the ovary*, and the *male sex cell called spermatozoa from the testes,* in the fallopian tube.] The **fallopian tube** is [the passage way of the ovum from the ovary to the uterus.] The *[fertilized egg cell]* now known as **zygote** contains all the hereditary potentials from the parents. The *[spermatozoa contain 23 pairs of chromosomes]*, *[22 of which are pairs of X chromosome and 1 unpaired a Y chromosome.]* The male chromosomes pass two stages: *the sexual maturation and fertilization.* The *[ovum also contains 23 pairs of chromosomes which ate all X.]* The female chromosomes undergo three stages: *sexual maturation, ovulation, and fertilization.* **Genes** are s*[mall particles in string-like formation which are the true carrier of hereditary characteristics of the parents.]* Within the genes is a substance called deoxyribonucleic acid or **DNA** which *[is the code of heredity.]* **How Twins Came About** - Generally, humans are singleton (one birth) but at times, humans can give multiple births (two or more births). - By luck of nature, the [sperms happen to meet and fertilize this single ovum]. When this happens the *ovary splits into two separate fertilized zygotes*. This becomes an identical twins or **monozygotic twins**. *[Identical or monozygotic twins are usually alike and of the same sex]*. - However, there is another happening. When the ovary either from the right or left expels two ripe ova and these two are penetrated and fertilized by two sperms the resulting offspring is also a twin called **fraternal or dizygotic twins.** *[Usually, fraternal twins see not alike and of different sex. ]* **SIGNIFICANCE OF CONCEPTION** **Conception** which [determines the hereditary endowments of the newly created organism are already formed once and for all.] This means that the hereditary potentials of parents, and both the paternal and maternal ancestors are foxed. [The determination of sex of the new created offspring is fixed. ] *[Conception determines the placing of ordinal position of birth, meaning that the first conception is first born (panganay) and the last conception is last born (bunso). ]* **KINDS OF BIRTH** After the *9 calendar months, or more or less 280 days gestation the fetus is now ready to be born.* - **Natural birth** - this is a normal birth when the *[fetus comes out from the mother\'s reproductive organ or uterus head first. ]* - **Breech birth** it is *[when the buttocks come first followed by the legs then the head.]* - **Caesarean section** - this happens when during the latter part of pregnancy there seems to be s*[ome complication that the fetus cannot pass through the birth canal, a slit on the abdominal wall of the mother is made.]* **DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES** An individual undergoes definite stages of development, in each stage the child has to experience certain developmental characteristics that have to be mastered to prepare him the next stage **Prenatal stage**. This stage starts from conception to birth which lasts for a period of 2 days or 9 months or 10 lunar months gestation. Prenatal stage is divided into 3 periods - **Period of the zygote.** This is from fertilization to the end of the second week, size of the zygote is at big as a pinhead. It has no source of nourishment but is kept alive by the yolk in the ovum. - **Period of embryo.** This is from the second week to the end of the second lunar month. The embryo is nourished by nutrients that come from the mother and absorbed by the placenta then pass to the umbilical cord. In this period all the important structures and features start to function. It is now possible to tell the sex of the unborn child. The embryo forms into three germ layers which also form different organs and tissues. The **endoderm becomes the lining of the respiratory track, tempanic membrane, Eustachian tube, and glands.** The **ectoderm** [constitutes the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system]. **The amniotic sac** - this is a [thin membrane that houses the fetus and protects it from injury. ] - **Period of the Fetus.** This starts from the end of the second month to birth. There are fetal activities like kicking and twisting. At this period, the fetus is already viable which means *that it can live outside the mother\'s uterus even if born prematurely, say 7 months.* By the eighth mouth, the fetal body is completely formed. **Infancy.** This covers the period from birth to the second week. Infancy is the shortest and most dangerous period. The infant displays different reflexes. - **Rooting reflex** - [this happens when the corner of the baby\'s mouth is stroked or touched, the baby will turn his head to the direction of touch, opens its mouth and makes sucking movement.] - **Moro reflex** - [it occurs when the baby hears loud noise, it throws back its head, extends out its arms and cries. ] - **Tonic reflex** - [when the baby\'s head is turned to one side, the arm on that side stretches out and the other arm beds at the elbows. This is called \"fencing\" position]**.** - **Grasping reflex** - [when one strokes the baby\'s palm it closes its fingers firmly. ] - **Babinsky reflex** - [if the soles of the baby\'s feet are stroked the big toe extends and the others toes curl.] - **Step reflex** - [ this happens when the baby is held upright, the feet make walking o dancing movement.] **Infancy is subdivided into periods:** - **Period of partunate** - from [15-30 minutes after birth which begins when the fetus has emerged from the mother\'s body and last until the umbilical cord is cut and tied.] - **Period of the neonate** - from [the cutting and tying of the umbilical cord to the end of the second week.] **Adjustment of infancy** Infants must make quickly to major adjustments before they can continue their developmental progress. If they fail to adjust quickly their lives maybe in danger. - **Temperature change**. While still in the uterine sac the *fetus has a constant temperature of 100degree F while temperature outside may drop to 70-60 degree.* - **A. Breathing**. The moment *[the umbilical cord is cut the infants must start to breathe by their own.]* - **B. Sucking and swallowing**. While in the mother\'s womb the embryo gets nourishment from the mother through the umbilical cord. [This time the infant must now get nourishment from the mother by breast sucking and swallowing.] *The first flow of mother\'s milk is **colostrum**.* - **C. Elimination.** The process of elimination of the embryo was through the umbilical cord. [After birth the infant\'s organ of elimination starts to function hence it must now learn to eliminate by itsel]f. *The first eliminated waste is called **meconium.*** - **Babyhood**. At this period from *2 weeks of life to 2 years the baby has already attained some amount of independence.* Babyhood is [the true foundation age because the patterns of behavior, attitudes and habit laid at this stage will determine the individual\'s development and adjustment in later years.] - **Childhood**. This period covers the *2nd year of life to 10 or 12 years*. Childhood is the [formative years in values, habits attitudes and behavior. ] - **Puberty**. Puberty is an overlapping period. It covers the latter part of childhood and early part of adolescence. This is a time of rapid growth and change. Puberty is called Age of Manhood. Puberty is divided into three stages. - A. **Prepubescent stage** - it is when *[the child is no longer called a child and not yet adolescent.]* Here the secondary characteristics begin to appear. ***Secondary characteristics*** pertain to the [rapid growth and change and the distinguishing of male and female.] - **B. Pubescent stage** this is when the primary sex characteristics appear. Primary characteristics are the ***menarche** or first flow of menstruation for girls* and ***spermache*** or *nocturnal emission for boys.* - **C. post pubescent** - this occurs on the first 2 years of adolescence wherein the secondary sex characteristics are fully developed and the sex organs start to function in a mature manner. [Generally, girls mature earlier than boys. ] **Adolescence.** Adolescence is the *teen years from 13-19*. At this period, [the individual is now considered a young adult and already integrated into adult society, yet this adolescent is still in search for his identity.] **Adulthood**. Adulthood is the *stage where the individual is considered a responsible person*. [This is the longest stage covering the 19-40 years. A]dulthood is a [settling down and reproductive age. It is also age of commitment. ] **Middle age.** This period starts *from 40-60 years*. It is a [period of transition from healthy adults to a change of patterns of life. ] **Old age** covers [60 years of age to senescence or end of life. This is a time of decline, physically, emotionally, mentally and socially.] **MOTOR DEVELOPMENT** Generally motor development depends on maturation, training and exercises. Some abilities develop at almost the same age while some at an early or later year. The moment the child walks steadily alone, he is ready for advance activities like running, jumping, or hopping. **SPEECH DEVELOPMENT** The child has to learn to speak as a form of communication and for gaining independence. At the early stage, cooing, crying, babbling and gesturing are the means of the child\'s communicating to adults. *Language* [begins when the child produces babbling sounds, a pre-speech of communication.] *Babbling* [produces vowels and consonants sounds which encourage parents to interact verbally with their children.] Later the child produces syllables, words or word sentences. **EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT** There are-common emotions that children manifest at an early age. These are hungry cry, anger, fear, love, and joy. Anger arises when the movement of young children is hampered. Babies manifest different stages of love such as the following - **Auto-erotic stage** at the very early life, [infant finds interest in his body and body processes.] - **Narcissistic stage -** At this stage the child\'s love- object is the self. This is the ***\"I, Me, and Mine\" stage.*** It is an *egocentric stage.* - **Parental stage** - At this stage, the child has strong attachment to his parents. [Since the mother is most concerned with the child\'s necessities and comfort, she becomes the first object of attachment. ] - **Sexual latency stage.** There is [no prominent affection during this stage, in fact, boys and girls are hostile to each other. ] - **Homosexual stage** - During pre-adolescence, boys and girls show affection for their own sex and feel happy when they are with their own sex. Strong friendship with the same sex develops at this point. - **Heterosexual stage** - It is at this stage when affection for opposite sex develops. Boys and girls show interest and prefer the company of each other. **MORAL DEVELOPMENT** The *young children have no sense of values and no conscience*. Hence, they are neither moral nor immoral rather non-moral. This is because their behaviors are not guided by moral standards. Hence, the home which is the strongest influence in the moral development of the children should show correct patterns of behavior, attitudes and habits so that these will be acquired by the young children. [Parents and other significant people should make the children understand that good behavior is rewarded and bad action is reprimanded or punished. ] **Some Possible Effects on the Development of the Embryo and Fetus during Pregnancy** - **Alcohol** - mental retardation, addiction, hyperactivity and undersized body. - **Asperin** (large doses) respiratory bleeding. - **Caffeine** (coffee, soft drinks, chocolate) stimulates the fetus & other effect. - **Cigarettes** - undersize, premature delivery & fetal death. - **Cocaine** - spontaneous abortion, and neurological problems - **Heavy metal** (lead, mercury) hyperactivity, mental retardation and still birth - **Heavy sedation during labor** - brain damage, asphyxiation - **Marijuana** birth defect. - **Paint fumes** (substantial exposure) mental retardation - **Rubella** (German measles) mental retardation, damaged nerves, impair vision and hearing - **Vitamin A** (large doses) cleft palate, and eye damage - **Vitamin D** - (large doses) mental retardation x-ray malformation Introduction to Psychology **\#PRELIMINARY REVIEWER** **LESSON 3: NEUROBIOLOGICAL BASES OF BEHAVIOR** **THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AND THE BRAIN** ***TWO PARTS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM*** - **Central Nervous System (CNS)** - **Brain and spinal cord** - **Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)** - **the neurons that link the CNS to our skin, muscles, and glands.** **CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM** - **Cranium - box within the skull** - **[Responsible for coordination, control of body activities and expression of emotion and thoughts.]** 1. **Forebrain - [regulate complex mental processes]** a. **Consists of:** i. **Cerebrum, cerebral cortex, thalamus, hypothalamus** 2. **Mid-Brain - [smallest division of the brain. ]** b. ***Reticular formation -* [regulate arousal level which plays an important role in attention, sleep and consciousness. ]** 3. **Hindbrain - [close to the spinal cord ]** c. **Consists of:** ii. **Medulla oblongata, pons, cerebellum** - **Spinal Cord - [carrying messages between the brain and PNS]** - ***Spinal nerves divided into two roots*** - ***Dorsal root*** - ***Ventral root*** **Limbic System** - **Amygdala** - a small almond structure located directly in front of the hippocampus - **Hippocampus** - consists of *two \"horns\"* that curve back from the amygdala. [The hippocampus is important in storing information in long-term memory.] [\ **NEURONS: BUILDING BLOCK OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM** ] - **Nervous system** is *composed of more than 100 billion cells known as neurons*. - **Neuron** is *cell in the nervous system* whose [function is to receive and transmit information. ] - **Dendrites**: [receives messages from other neurons ] - **Axon**: [carries messages to other cells through the neuron ] - **Terminal buttons[:]** [relay messages to other cells] - **Myelin sheath**: [to prevent messages from short circulating by insulating the axons] **Synapses** - **Sensory of efferent neuron** [carries messages from the receptors to the spinal cord and brain ] - **Motor or efferent neurons** [transmit messages from the brain and spinal cord and send them to the motor organs ] - **Connector neurons** [provide connection between the sensory and motor neurons ] **Neurotransmitter** a *chemical message* which [gaps between the axon and dendrite.] ***Neuro-transmitter*** - **Acetylcholine**: A common neurotransmitter used in the spinal cord and motor neurons to stimulate muscle contractions. It\'s also used in the brain to regulate memory. sleeping, and dreaming. - Alzheimer\'s disease is associated with undersupply of acetylcholine. Nicotine is an agonist that acts like acetylcholine. - **Dopamine** involved motivation, in and movement, emotion, Dopamine produces feelings of pleasure when released by the brain\'s reward system, and it\'s also involved in learning. - Schizophrenia is linked increases in dopamine, whereas Parkinson\'s disease is linked to reductions in dopamine (and dopamine agonists may be used to treat it). - **Endorphins** released in response to behaviors such as vigorous exercise, orgasm, and eating spicy foods. - Endorphins are natural pain relievers. They are related to the compounds found in drugs such as opium, morphine, and heroin. The release of endorphins creates the runner\'s high that is experienced after intense physical exertion. - **GABA (gamma aminobutyric acid):** The major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain. - A lack of GABA can lead to involuntary motor actions, including tremors and seizures. Alcohol stimulates the release of GABA, which inhibits the nervous system and makes us feel drunk. Low levels of GABA can produce anxiety, and GABA agonists (tranquilizers) are used to reduce anxiety. - **Glutamate**: The most common neurotransmitter, it\'s released in more than 90% of the brain\'s synapses. Gluta- mate is found in the food additive MSG (monosodium glutamate). - Excess glutamate can cause overstimulation, migraines and seizures. - **Serotonin** involved in many functions, including mood, appetite, sleep, and aggression. - Low levels of serotonin are associated with depression, and some drugs designed to treat depression (known as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, or SSRIs) serve to prevent their uptake. **Three levels of synaptic connection** 1. **Reflexes level** - [automatic response of some parts of the body] a. **Pupillary reflex** - [narrowing of the pupils of the eyes is in response to too much light stimulation] b. **Gagging reflex** - when [an object is placed on the back of the tongue, this is a protective reflex. ] 2. **Instinctive level** - is common to all members of the species. [Instinctive reactions are related to nurture and reproductive behaviors. ] 3. **Cortex level** - is the most complex. [Activity that involves the thinking, reasoning, memory and imaginations belong to cortex level.] **MUSCLES AND GLANDS MUSCLES** There are three kinds of muscles. - **Voluntary muscles.** Muscle that can moved at the person\'s will. - Also called *striped muscles, skeletal muscle and voluntary muscle.* - **Involuntary muscles**. Muscles that cannot be moved at will. Found in the internal organ of the body. - Also known as *smooth muscles or visceral muscles.* - **Cardiac muscle.** Found in the heart. Striped yet cannot move at the person's will. **CHARACTERICTICS OF MUSCLES** - **Contractility** is the characteristic of the [muscles to change from a long narrow shape while at rest and a shorter and thicker form while in action. ] - **Extensibility** is the [capacity of the muscles to be stretched or made longer. ] - **Elasticity** is the [power of the muscles to go back to its original size and shape after contracting or stretching. ] - **Tonicity** - is [the ability of the muscles to be in the condition of healthy tension or partial contraction at rest.] **Functions of the Muscles** Muscles have very important functions: - Muscles give shape to the body. The firmer the muscles, the better shape the body has. - Muscles secure the internal organs of the body and make these internal organs function well. - Muscles are made for motion. One cannot imagine how the body moves without those muscles. - Muscles are utilized for locomotion. Locomotion is a movement from one place to another. The muscles make this possible. - Muscles are used to produce heat in the body. Persons with thick muscles do not readily feel cold compared to thin persons with less muscles. - Muscles likewise aid the body in communicating, like talking, writing, gesturing and even facial expression. **GLANDS** are special secreting organs which *[pour the secretion either directly into the blood streams or pass it through the Ducts or canals ]* - **Ductless gland or endocrine glands** - [glands that have no canals] - **Duct glands** - [glands that have canals like the salivary glands, lachrymal glands and others. ] **Endocrine system** is [composed of series of glands that produce chemical substance called *hormones.*] **Hormones** are [secreted in the bloodstream and travel throughout the body affecting the cells that contain receptors from them.\ ]\ **Major glands** - **Pituitary gland.** The most influential gland that is *[found in the base of the brain.]* It is also called *\"master gland\"* because of its influence on the other endocrine glands. - **Thyroid gland.** Located at the base of the throat. It is a flat-like butterfly gland that secretes two known hormones thyroxine and idothyroxine. - **Cretinism** is a [condition of stunted growth and mental retardation.] - **Myxedema** is characterized by the [low basal metabolism.] - the less serious result of insufficient secretion of thyroxine is simpler goiter. Prevented by eating a good amount of sea foods. - **Parathyroid glands** are found behind the thyroid gland. They produce substance called parathormone. - **Parathormone** controls the balance of different minerals in the blood stream specially calcium. [Lack of supply of this hormone results in tetany.] ***Tetany*** is [stiffening of the hand and fingers, muscles cramps and irritability. ] - **Adrenal gland** is located on *top of each kidney.* Each gland is made up to two parts-*adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla.* - **Adrenal cortex** secretes cortin. [An excess of cortin hastens the onset of puberty and develops male characteristics, in female, like the appearance of moustache, male voice, hair on the chest or rough skin. ] - **Adrenal medulla** [secretes adrenalin hormone which serves to give extra energy needed during emergency, this is why this hormone is called emergency gland.] **Pancreas** is an internal organ that secretes hormones called **insulin and glucagon.** [Pancreas hormones are vital for maintaining stable levels of blood sugar throughout the day.] **Insulin hormone** is responsible for the [lowering of sugar level in or raising sugar level in the blood by glucagon]. Pancreas causes disease called *diabetes.* **Gonads** are *sex glands*. The gonads are differed for male and female. The male gonad is called testes that secrete hormone called **testosterone**. The *female gonads* are the **ovaries**. The ovaries secrete hormone called **estrogen and progesterone**. **Estrogen** is responsible for the *secondary sex characteristics.* **Progesterone** *stimulates the thickening of the uterine lining.* Introduction to Psychology **\#PRELIMINARY REVIEWER** **LESSON 4: SENSATION AND PERCEPTION** **SENSATION** - Is the stimulation of the sensory receptors and the transmission of sensory information to the central nervous system. Sensory receptors are located in the sensory organs such as the eyes, nose, ears, skin and mouth. 1. *The eyes* 2. *The ears* 3. *The nose* 4. *The tongue* 5. *The skin* - *The eyes are **ball-shaped*** - *It is found within a bony cavity called **eye socket.*** - ***Cornea**, a transparent protective window that is constantly washed by tears making it clean.* - ***Iris**, the colored part of the eyes.* - ***Pupil**, it is where the light enters.* - ***Lens** which is located behind the pupil.* - ***Retina** is the part of the eyes that changes electromagnetic energy of light.* **Two Types of Light Sensitive Receptor Cells in The Retina:** - Rods - The **rods** are long and cylindrical - **Rods** are responsible for twilight vision or light of low intensity - Cones - The **cones** are short, thick and tapered. - **Cones** are responsible for daylight vision and colors. The center of the retina is the **fovea centralis** - The optic nerve is a bundle of **ganglion** cells at the back of the eyeball. - **Ganglion cells** collect and summarize visual information which are gathered and moved out of the back of the eyeball through a bundle of ganglion axons called **optic nerve.** - **Optic chasm** is a point between and behind the eyes wherein the more impulses from the optic nerve are reversed in the brain. **Color Vision and Night Blindness** - **Blindness** are people who have limited perception of light and colors. - People who find difficulty in seeing light or object at night are called **night-blind.** - supplies **rhodopsin** or reddish purple - Deficiency in vitamin A **Common Eye Deviation from Normal Vision** - **Myopia or Nearsightedness -** caused by abnormal long eyeball so that the image is focused in front of the retina. - **Hyperopia or Farsightedness -** when the eyeball is so short that the image is focused behind the retina. - **Presbyopia -** farsightedness of old age which is caused by the slow hardening of the lens. - **Astigmatism -** caused by the uneven curvature of the cornea. - **Cross-eye -** congenital farsightedness or defect in the eye muscles. - **Tunnel Vision -** caused by a concentric narrowing of the field of vision - **Diplopia or Double Vision -** condition by the muscular imbalance - **Scotoma** - resulting from excessive use if tobacco or alcohol, or from over exposure to light **The Ears: Hearing Sense** - Sound waves - Loudness (magnitude of the sound) - Pitch (high or low) - Timbre (quality of sound) The ears consist of three parts: 1. **[Outer ear -]** known as **pinna** is the visible part of the ear that catches the sound and brings this sound into the auditory canal down to the middle ear. The **auditory canal** is a *tube-like passage in the ear through which sound waves move to the eardrum or tempanic membrane.* The **eardrum** is a *miniature (small) drum that vibrates when sound waves hit it.* [The louder the sound, the more it vibrates.] 2. **[Middle ear -]** a [small chamber (room) which has tiny bones] called ***malleus or hammer***, *the incus or anvil and stapes or stirrup.* The *malleus or hammer* [transfers vibration to the anvil or incus.] The *anvil or incus* [transfers the vibration to the stirrup or stapes], and the stirrup brings the vibration to the oval window. The **oval window** is *[a thin membrane between the middle ear and the inner ear.]* 3. **[Inner ear -]** the component of the ear that actually changes the sound vibration into a form that can be transmitted to the brain. When sound enters the inner ear through the oval window it moves to the **organ of corti** within **the cochlea.** The **cochlea**, a *small snail-like-tube* is filled with fluid called **endolymph**. Inside the cochlea is a basilar membrane. The **basilar membrane** is [a structure that runs through the cortex of the cochlea dividing it into the lower and upper chambers (rooms).] The basilar membrane is [covered with hair cells]. The **hair cells** are *bent by the vibration entering the cochlea through a neural message or sound and are transmitted to the brain.[\ ]* **Hearing defects** - **Conductive deafness** - the result of disturbance in the conduction of air waves from the outer ear to the inner ear. Defects of the small bones, (the oval window and basilar membrane) which amplify sounds prevent the flow of vibration. This defect can be remedied by the use of a hearing aid. - **Nerve deafness** - caused by the loss of sensitivity of the receptors. Injury or infection to the nerve cells or auditory nerves may lead to partial or total deafness. When there is loss of sensitivity to some sound frequency partial deafness may result. Total deafness cannot be helped by a hearing aid. **The Tongue: Sense of Taste** - The receptor cells for taste are located in the **taste buds** which are distributed across the tongue. - There are four taste qualities: sweet, sour, bitter, and salty - **Sweet** - tip of the tongue - **Sour** - found on the sides - **Bitter** - back - **Salty** - entire area of the tongue **SMELL, TEMPERATURE, TEXTURE, APPEARANCE** **Gustatory abnormalities** - Loss of taste or **hypogeuia** - **Hypogeuia** and **anosmia** caused by serious respiratory infections - This condition may cause much suffering to the **hypogensics**. - Most of these people hate food because they are tasteless so that they lose much weight. **The Nose: Sense of Smell** - The sense of smell or olfactory receptor is located in the upper part of the nasal cavities in a small space called olfactory region. - There are large members of sensitive nerve endings known as olfactory bulbs. These receptors are very sensitive to gaseous elements. - **flowery fragrance** comes from blooming flowers such as sampaguita, rose, ilang - ilang, jasmine and other fragrant flowers. - **ethereal scent** refers to perfume or cologne. fruity smell is found in fruits like orange, mango and pineapple. - **pepper minty** emitted from garlic, pepper, onions and mustard. - **resinous** - is detected in turpentine, paint, varnish and lacquer. - **smoky or scorched -** comes from burnt paper, feather, leaves. - **putrid stink -** results from salted fish like bagoong, buro, patis, decaying fish or meat. - Loss or impairment of the sense of smell called **anosmia** **The Skin: Sense of Touch** - The sense organ involved in the sense of touch is the skin. (touch, pressure, warmth, cold and pain) - **Touch** is the sensation aroused (feel) - Pressed firmly against the skin the sensation aroused is pressure. - Pain and pressure are referred to as tactual or tactile experiences - Warmth and cold are called thermal experiences - Natural pain killers called **endorphins\ ** **The skin is composed of different layers namely:** - *The epidermis or outer layer* - *The dermis or intermediate layer* - *The adipose tissue or the deep layer*