PSY 101 Introduction to Psychology PDF

READING MATERIAL FOR PSY 101- INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Psychology is the study of behavior and cognitive process. As behavior and thinking processes are very diverse, so is the study of psychology. Psychology is also a science and as such, approaches the study of behavior from an empirical, scien...

READING MATERIAL FOR PSY 101- INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Psychology is the study of behavior and cognitive process. As behavior and thinking processes are very diverse, so is the study of psychology. Psychology is also a science and as such, approaches the study of behavior from an empirical, scientific perspective. It is the objective of this course to provide students with an overview of all areas of psychology. I. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? 1\. [Definition] - The book defines psychology as the study of behavior and cognitive processes. What does that mean? Does it mean the same thing to everyone? NO!! 2\. [Different Definitions of Psychology] - Different people in the past and different people today hold a wide variety of views as to what psychology is and what it should study. 3\. [Wilhelm Wundt] - Wundt founded the first psychological lab in 1879 at Leipzig in Germany. He saw psychology as the study of conscious experience. He did this through introspection, asking the person to describe what was doing on in his mind. His student Titchner brought the idea of structuralism to the United States. It was way too dependent on verbal communication and truthfulness of participant. Introspection was an attempt to study psychology as a chemist would study substances. 4\. [William James] - The first American psychologist. He was more interested in how the mind functions. The mind is a whole and you miss the point when you try to break it down into its parts. Develop functionalism as an answer to the problems encountered in introspection or structuralism. 5\. [John Watson] - Watson said \"You can\'t see the mind so how can you study it?\" All we can see is observable behavior and that is what psychology should study. Skinner is also widely known for this view. 6\. [Mary Calkins] - First woman to make a career in psychology. But because of prejudices against women in 1895, she never received a Ph.D. The first woman psychologists with a Ph.D. was Margaret Washburn II\. MODERN APPROACHES/ PERSPECTIVES/SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT IN PSYCHOLOGY 1\. [Overview] - Today most psychologists believe overt behavior is central to the field. What leads to behavior is debated however. Therefore there are a variety of perspectives on what is the focus of study. 2\. [Cognitive Perspective] - Cognition means thinking. The cognitive perspective holds that to understand how people behave you have to understand how they think, remember, and decide. That is what determines how they act. 3\. [Physiological Perspective] - Our brain is a complex biochemical organ that affects how we think and how we behave. To understand behavior you must understand the roots of behavior, the working of the brain and nervous system. 4\. [Sociocultural Perspective] - Behavior is strongly influenced by social and cultural factors. To fully understand behavior you have to take into consideration the social and cultural environment in which it occurs. 5. [Psychodynamic Perspective] - This is based on the work of Sigmund Freud. Freud saw psychology as the study of unconscious because he believed unconscious motivation controlled behavior.\ \ 6. [Behavioral Perspective] - Probably the most dominant perspective today. This is the continuation of Watson\'s idea that overt behavior is the most important thing to study. A combination of this and the cognitive perspective is also very popular. IV\. AREAS/ SCOPE/ PROFESSIONS IN PSYCHOLOGY\ \ 1. [Clinical Psychology] - This is what most people think when they hear the word psychologist. They diagnose and treat mental disorders.\ \ 2. [Counseling Psychology] - The book says they treat people who do not have mental disorders but in reality they do the same thing as clinical psychologists although they are less likely to work with people with severe psychopathology.\ \ 3. [School Psychology] - This is the third of the three main applied areas. They diagnose and treat children with learning, behavioral, and emotional problems with and emphasis on the school environment.\ \ 4. [Developmental Psychology] - They study how people change physically, cognitively, and socially over the lifespan.\ \ 5. [Educational Psychology] - They study psychological principles within an educational environment. They are different from school psychologists because they generally do not work with individual children but focus more on instruction, techniques, etc.\ \ 6. [Cognitive Psychology] - Their focus is on thinking, reasoning, language, and decision making.\ \ 7. [Industrial/Organizational Psychology] - Studies aspects of behavior in work settings such as personnel selection, employee evaluation, work motivation, and leadership.\ \ 8. [Psychobiology] - Also called physiological psychology. They are interested in the brain and how it works.\ \ 9. [Social Psychology] - They are interested in social behavior. How do we act and react based on social information we receive.\ \ 10. [Experimental Psychology] - This covers almost all of the basic areas such as perception, learning, motivation, and animal behavior. VI\. Three Major Philosophical Issues in Psychology Free-will versus Determinism. Is our behavior pre-determined for us or do we have a say in it? The Mind-Body Problem. Is the mind (the psychological) separate synchronous or related to the body (physical)? The roots are in philosophy, but a number of early psychologists studied this problem. Nature versus Nurture. Is behavior due to heredity (nature) or environmental influences (nurture)? A number of evidence goes both ways. This one is difficult to resolve. I. METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY 1\. [Definition] - Methodology simply refers to the methods we use to conduct an investigation. 2\. [Systematic Research] - Research in psychology is not haphazard. Following the basic principles of science there is some systematic way all research is conducted. Usually this means the psychologists approaches a problem from a theoretical perspective, they arrive at some question they want to answer which is called a hypothesis, and then perform a study to answer the question. 3\. [Naturalistic Observations] - This is the simplest way we study behavior. You simply observe the behavior in its natural environment. This is frequently informal is usually the first step to allow you to get a better understanding of the behavior which allows further, more in-depth investigation. 4\. [Case Study] - This is the gathering of detailed information on a specific individual. It is the technique used by Freud. It is difficult; however, to generalize past the person you are studying. 5\. [Surveys] - Surveys ask a large number of people questions and are most frequently used to get an idea of the population's attitudes toward something such as who they are going to vote for. They are only accurate, however, if the people surveys are representative of the population as a whole. 6\. [Correlations] - This investigates the degree of relatedness between two variables. The range is from -1 to +1. A positive correlation indicates that a high score on one variable is associated with a high score on the other variable. For example, height and weight are positively correlated. As you get taller you tend to weigh more. A negative correlation means that a high score on one variable is associated with a low score on the other. For example, amount of brain damage and short-term memory. The more brain damage you have the poorer your short-term memory. Correlation does not imply causality. For example, there is a high correlation between umbrellas being open and the number of puddles on the ground. That does not mean the umbrellas cause puddles. II\. EXPERIMENTATION 1\. [Causation] - If you want to determine if one variable causes another to happen you have to conduct an experiment. An experiment systematically alters one variable to see its effect on another variable. 2\. [Independent Variable] - The variable that we alter systematically is referred to as the independent variable. 3\. [Dependent Variable] - This is the outcome variable, the one we measure to see how it is affected by the independent variable. 4\. [Example] - You are interested in seeing the immediate effects of watching TV violence on aggression. You show one group a violent film (Terminator II) and another group a nonviolent film (The Sound of Music). You then put each in a play situation and see how much pushing the child engages in. The IV is the film and the DV is the amount of pushing. *How Some Experiments Go Wrong* There are a number of events that can occur before, during and after an experiment that can have a negative impact on the psychological research study. Poorly planned studies will yield results that are useless, misleading or worse. Here are some of them. 1\. Demand Characteristics: the participants will not behave normally during the experiment. Instead he or she will try to guess what the experimenter is trying to do or study and either \"help\" or \"hinder\" the researcher. For example, if a study is titled: \"Weeping and Crying.\" the participants may get an idea about what the study is about and act accordingly. 2\. Experimenter Bias. The researcher can have his or her own perception of each participant. If a researcher expects \"smart\" subjects to do well, those subjects generally end up doing better than other's that were not expected to do well. 3\. Dropout. The participants who decide to drop out of the study may be doing so because they possess certain characteristics that are not suited to the study. To counter some of the problems involved, the primary investigator can design the study so that the experimenter and/or the participant are unaware of the purpose of the study. When just the participant or just the experimenter does not know the purpose, it is called a \"single-blind\" study. If both experimenter and participants do not know it is called \"double-blind.\" PSYCHOBIOLOGICAL BASES OF BEHAVIOR I. OVERVIEW 1\. [Influence of Body on Behavior] - No one will argue that the body and its mechanisms have a strong influence on behavior. This is especially true of the brain. 2\. [Phinneus P. Gage] - Back in the 1800\'s there was a man named Phinneus Gage who was working in the construction of a railroad. His job was to use explosives to blow away ground so they could lay track. He was generally considered a kind and gentle man. One day an accident happened and the tamping rod was accidently blow clean through his head. Surprisingly he didn\'t die but he did show a complete personality change. He became a drunk, was violent, and completely irresponsible. This led to an interest in how the brain controls behavior and personality. 3 [Physiological Psychology] - This field of study has traditionally been called physiological psychology but is now more frequently called psychobiology, biopsychology, or neuroscience. The focus of study is generally how the brain controls all aspects of our behavior.\ \ \ II. NEURONS 1\. [What Are They?] - Neurons are cells within our nervous system. They are specialized for sending and/or receiving information. 2\. [Structure] - Neurons consist of three basic parts. The cell body is the main part or center of the neuron. The axon is a tail like structure that carry information away from the cell body. The dendrites (one or more) are usually small appendages that carry information toward the cell body. 3\. [Myelin Sheath] - Many axons, especially the longer ones are covered by a fatty substance called myelin. It is interrupted by small gaps called Nodes of Ranvier which allow for impulses to be sent more quickly. At the end of the axon is an axon terminal that comes close to another cell in an area know as the synapse. 4\. [Action Potential] - Neurons transmit messages in the form of electrochemical impulses called an action potential. 5\. [Neurotransmitters] - When the action potential reaches the axon terminal a chemical known as a neurotransmitter is released into the synapse. They travel across the synapse until they reach a receptor (usually in the dendrites of another neuron) and they cause that cell to respond according to the message received. Students don\'t need to know any specific neurotransmitters. III\. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 1\. [Definition] - The nervous system connects our entire body and allows communication that controls our behaviors and bodily functions. There are two major systems: the Central Nervous System and the Peripheral Nervous System.\ \ 2. [Central Nervous System] - This consists of the brain and spinal cord. this is the ultimate control center for all human behavior.\ \ 3. [Peripheral Nervous System] - This consists primarily of nerves that conveys signals from the body\'s sensory receptors to the CNS and transmits messages back from the CNS to muscles or glands.\ \ 4. [Divisions of Peripheral Nervous System] - The PNS is divided into two parts. The Somatic Nervous System connects the CNS with voluntary muscles throughout the body, those muscles we can control. The Autonomic Nervous System controls visceral muscles and glands. Those muscles we don\'t have voluntary control over such as the heart.\ \ 5. [Divisions of Autonomic Nervous System] - The ANS is divided into two parts. The Sympathetic Nervous System promotes energy expenditure, especially in emergency situations. It stimulates heart rate, BP, flow of blood to muscles, etc. to get you ready for action. The Parasympathetic Nervous System dominates under conditions of relaxation and tends to conserve energy.\ \ IV. STRUCTURE OF THE BRAIN\ 1. [Very Complex] - The human brain is the most complex structure ever discovered or created by humans. There are approximately 10 billion nerve cells in the brain and each one has potential contact with every other one. There is, however, no relationship between brain size and intelligence. What relates to intelligence are the convolutions (fissures, wrinkles, or folds) in the brain. No animal has as many convolutions as humans except the porpoise.\ \ 2. [Oxygen Consumption] - The brain needs oxygen to survive. The brain contributes about 1/50th of your body weight yet consumes 25% of your oxygen. Deprivation of oxygen to the brain will lead to you passing out in 15 seconds and brain damage within 4 minutes.\ \ 3. [No Pain Receptors in Brain] - There are no pain nerves in the brain. If you have a headache it is usually due to dilation off the blood vessels that surround the brain.\ \ 4. [Brain Stem] - Our basic body processes are mediated in the brain stem, the portion of the brain just above the spinal cord. The Medulla regulates vital body functions such as breathing and heartbeat. This is why people that are called brain dead can still survive. The Pons deals with sensory and motor information and regulates sleep, arousal, etc.\ \ 5. [Cerebellum] - This is just behind the brain stem and it coordinates voluntary movements, regulates posture and equilibrium. The brain stem and cerebellum are located at hind brain\ \ 6. [Midbrain] - Located near the end of the brain stem. This contains primitive centers for vision and hearing and plays a role in the regulation of visual reflexes.\ \ 7. [Hypothalamus] - This is a small structure that has a tremendous effect on our behavior. It regulates the autonomic nervous system and influences behaviors such as eating and aggression as well as our sexual organs. The hypothalamus and cerebral cortex are located at the fore brain.\ \ 8. [Cerebral Cortex] - This is what sets humans apart from other animals by its size and this is the center for all higher mental processes. It consists of two hemispheres and four distinct areas which are called lobes.\ (a) Frontal Lobe - This is the area closest to the face. The function of most of it is unknown but it is believed to have some effect on behavior. This is the area that Phinneus P. Gage had damaged. This led to psychosurgery, the removal of this part of the brain. It also contains the motor cortex, the area concerned with control of body movements\ (b) Parietal Lobe - This is located just behind the frontal lobe across the central fissure. This contains the somatosensory cortex and is the primary area for reception and interpretation of information from the skin senses (touch, temperature, etc.).\ \ (c) Occipital Lobe - This is located in the back of the head and it is the primary visual area in the brain. It receives input from the eyes.\ \ (d) Temporal Lobe - Located along the side of each hemisphere and it is primarily concerned with hearing and receiving input from the ears.\ \ V. THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM\ \ 1. Endocrine System - Our body and behavior are controlled not only through neural impulses from the brain but also through a slower chemical system called the endocrine system.\ \ 2. [Hypothalamus] - The Hypothalamus has control over endocrine glands located throughout the body. The messages are sent to the gland via chemical substances called hormones. these hormones affect sexual arousal, emotional responses, motivation, physical growth, and metabolism.\ \ 3. [Pituitary Gland] - This is called the master gland in the body and it is what receives information from the Hypothalamus and then releases hormones to affect other parts of the body.\ \ VI. Principles of Heredity\ \ 1. [Conception] - Conception occurs when a sperm cell from the father penetrates and unites (fertilizes) with the ovum (egg cell) from the mother. The egg is about 90,000 times as heavy as the sperm. Women have finite number of eggs (300-500), men infinite number of sperm. For example, a teaspoon of sperm could father everyone alive on earth today.\ \ 2. [Chromosomes] - In the nucleus of each cell there are threadlike entities called chromosomes and on these there are genes which contain the genetic code. Each cell of normal people contain 46 chromosomes (2 sets of 23). The sperm and the egg each have 23 chromosomes so that when they unite the fertilized egg gets one set of chromosomes from the mother and one from the father.\ \ 3. [Genotype & Phenotype] - Genotype is simply the genes that you have. Phenotype is how those genes are interpreted into behavior or characteristics.\ \ 6. [Sex Chromosomes] - Of the 23 pairs of chromosomes, 22 are autosomes, that is they are possesses equally by males and females. The 23rd pair is the sex chromosome and differs in males and females. The female has 2 X chromosomes (XX) and males have an X and a Y (XY). As the mother can only pass on an X chromosome the sex of the child is determined by the father.\ \ 7. [Sex-Linked Characteristics] - The fact that some genes on the X have no counterpart on the Y results in sex-linked characteristics in males. These are result of genes on X that only show self in presence of Y. Examples include hemophilia, color blindness, baldness, etc. Also, there is a higher rate of miscarriage. infant mortality, and childhood deaths in males partly because of their vulnerability to sex-linked disorders.\ \ VII. Chromosome Abnormalities\ \ 1. [Down Syndrome] - Called trisomy 21 because child has an extra 21st chromosome. Characterized by physical and mental retardation and a distinctive physical appearance. Also have greater succeptability to leukemia, heart disorders, and respiratory infections which often lead to early death. Occurs more frequently in older mothers (over 35). This is the most common of the chromosomal abnormalities.\ \ 2. [Sex Chromosome Abnormalities] - Many chromosomal abnormalities involve the sex chromosomes, usually you have too many.\ \ 3. [Turner\'s Syndrome] - (XO) Born with a singe X chromosome. Usually have normal intelligence but are small in stature, webbed neck, stubby fingers and toes, broad chest and small breasts. Personality is usually pleasant, relaxed, and docile. Sterile at puberty and they don\'t develop secondary sex characteristics. Can be treated with hormones which develops secondary characteristics but they remain sterile.\ \ 4. [Triple-X Syndrome] - Also called \"super female\" syndrome. Have 3 X chromosomes. They are normal in appearance and fertile. Slightly below average in intelligence.\ \ 5. [Klinefelter\'s Syndrome] - These are males born with one or more extra X chromosome (XXY, XXXY). Appear normal until puberty when they develop female secondary sexual characteristics (breasts, etc.). They are sterile and about 20-30% are mentally deficient with retardation being more severe with the more X chromosomes.\ \ 6. [Supermale Syndrome] - (XYY) Males with extra Y chromosome. Tend to be taller, have acne, and slightly below average IQ. There has been some suggestion that they are more likely to be aggressive and criminals. This is not warranted. Although there may be higher rate of them in prison than in normal population, their rate is similar to XY low IQ males.\ \ VIII. Genetic Abnormalities\ \ 1. [Cause] - Many serious disorders are caused by a single defective gene. Could be result of mutations in genes which can be caused by high temperature, radiation, drugs, or sometimes happen spontaneously. Also caused by recessive genes.\ \ 2. [PKU (phenylketonuria)] - Child is unable to metabolize phenylanine. If left untreated it results in MR, hyperactivity, and a peculiar odor. Can be treated via diet. Caused by a recessive trait.\ \ 3. [Tay-Sachs] - A degenerative disease of the nervous system that kills its victims, usually by age 3. A recessive gene so both parents must be carriers. Affects Jewish children of Eastern European ancestry.\ \ 4. [Cystic Fibrosis] - Also recessive trait. Lack enzyme to prevent mucus from obstructing lungs. Rarely survive beyond adolescence.\ \ 5. [Huntington\'s Chorea] - Dominant gene. Causes a gradual deterioration in nervous system, leading to death. Usually doesn\'t appear until after age 40. It can therefore be passed on from generation to generation. LEARNING THEORY I. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING\ 1. Discovered the principle of classical conditioning by accident. 2\. Pavlov wanted to understand how a dog\'s stomach prepares to digest food when something is placed in the dog\'s mouth. 3\. He noticed that the mere sight or smell of food was enough to get the dog salivating - investigated how this worked. II\. Elements of Classical Conditioning\ 1. UCS \-\-\-\-\-\--\>UCR\    (food)    (salivation)\ \    CR\-\-\-\-\-\-\-\--\|CS\    (tone) - neutral 2\. Pavlov chose the tuning fork as a neutral stimulus - it initially had nothing to do with the response (salivation). 3\. By pairing the neutral stimulus with the food he found that the tone alone could elicit salivation. 4\. Generally thought of as involving responses the individual has little control over such as autonomic nervous system responses - salivation, sucking in infants, heart rate, blood pressure. III\. Concepts Describing Classical Conditioning\ \ 1. [Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)] - the environmental factor (stimulus) that naturally brings about a particular behavior (response).\ \ 2. [Unconditioned Response (UCR)] - the unlearned, automatically occurring reaction brought about by an unconditioned stimulus.\ \ 3. [Conditioned Stimulus (CS)] - is a neutral stimulus that becomes capable of eliciting a particular response through being paired during training with a UCS.\ \ 4. [Conditioned Response (CR)] - is a response aroused by some stimulus other than the one that automatically produces it.\ \ IV. Other Principles\ \ 1. [Extinction] - Pavlov discovered that if he stopped presenting food after sounding the tuning fork, the sound gradually lost it\'s effect on the dog - it no longer elicited salivation. The association between the two lessened. Called extinction.\ \ 2. [Spontaneous Recovery] - He also found that if he gave the dog a rest from the apparatus after extinction and later struck the tuning fork again the dog salivated again. Called spontaneous recovery. If pairing not made with UCS however, second extinction is quicker. Also successive spontaneous recoveries not as strong.\ \ 4. [Stimulus Generalization] - Not only the conditioned stimulus under which a response was first learned can elicit the response (CR) but also a range of similar stimuli. Example: Pavlov - not only tuning fork but also maybe hitting the edge of a glass.\ \ 5. [Stimulus Discrimination] - The ability to respond differently to two or more stimuli that are similar yet distinct.\ \ 6. [Higher-Order Conditioning] - After a secondary conditioned stimulus is paired with the primary stimulus a number of times, it may take on the functions of a primary stimulus. Example: Pavlov\'s experiment have tone eliciting salivation, now lets pair tone with a light - after a while the light alone will elicit salivation.\ \ \ \ V. Examples\ \ 1. Fear - Give example.\ [Watson & Raynor] (1920) - demonstration of classical conditioning to emotional responses in humans. 9 month old child - Little Albert - beginning of experiment white rat did not elicit fear, loud noise did elicit crying and distress. paired the loud noise with the rat and after a while the rat elicited fear in Little Albert. What is UCS? (loud noise)\ What is UCR? (fear response to loud noise)\ What is CS? (rat)\ What is CR? (fear of rat)\ What would it be if Albert also became afraid of cats? (stimulus generalization)\ What if Albert was not afraid of gerbils? (stimulus discrimination)\ This is one way phobias can develop.\ \ [Most Common Phobias]\ acrophobia - fear of high places\ agoraphobia - fear of open places\ claustrophobia - fear of closed places\ gynephobia - fear of women\ hydrophobia - fear of water\ mysophobia - fear of dirt\ ophidiophobia - fear of nonpoisonous snakes\ \ 2. [Taste Aversion] - Lets say you go to a restaurant and you try escargot for the first time. You then get sick - will you eat snails again? (probably not). What if ate steak, baked potato, and snails? (aversion probably just to snails). Why? (snails are the novel stimulus).\ \ OPERANT CONDITIONING AND REINFORCEMENT\ \ I. Background\ \ 1. [Definition] - Type of learning in which the consequences of a behavior influence whether the organism will act in the same way in the future - the animal learns the relationship between his own behavior and a reinforcing or punishing stimulus.\ \ 2. [Reinforcement] - An environmental stimulus which is contingent on a response and increases the probability of a response.\ \ 3. [Punishment] - An environmental stimulus which is contingent on a response and decreases the probability of a response.\ \ II. The ABCs of Behavior (Functional Analysis)\ \ 1. [A = Antecedent] - Stimuli happening before the behavior such as instructions or gestures.\ \ 2. [B = Behavior] - This is simply the act itself. The individual\'s response.\ \ 3. [C = Consequence] - This is the event that follows the behavior.\ \ 4. [Example] - A = A teacher asks a student to answer a question. B = The student answers the question. C = The teacher tells the student that he did good (reinforcement).\ \ III. Four ways to administer contingent consequences.\ \ 1. [positive stimulus presented] (positive reinforcement) - presentation of a stimulus increases the probability of a response. Example? (give candy for sitting in seat)\ \ 2. [positive stimulus removed] (response-cost) - Should produce a suppression of the behavior. Example? (take away TV for talking back to mother)\ \ 3. [negative stimulus presented] (punishment) - Decreases the probability of the behavior. Example? (spanking)\ \ 4. [negative stimulus removed] (negative reinforcement) - Results in increase in probability of a behavior. Example? (kid wants a cookie, he cries until mother gives him one, mother\'s cookie giving behavior removes negative stimulus, crying, more likely to give cookie again to escape from crying - child however was positively reinforced for crying)\ \ \ IV. Reinforcement\ \ 1. [Primary Reinforcement] - Unconditioned. A stimulus that does not require an organism to learn its reinforcing qualities. Examples? (food, water, sex).\ \ 2. [Secondary Reinforcement] - Conditioned. A neutral stimulus that, through constant association with primary reinforcers, acquires its own reinforcing qualities. Examples? (money, grades)\ \ 3. [Extinction] - When we withhold a reinforcer than you should have extinction of the behavior it was reinforcing. Hope not always the case - when have added behavior through reinforcement, hope other things will have taken over reinforcing properties or it has become intrinsically reinforcing.\ \ 3. [Bribery vs. Reinforcement] - some say reinforcing someone for acting the way they should is Bribery but offering incentives is not necessary Bribery. Is a salary for working Bribery?\ \ \ V. Factors Influencing Effectiveness of Reinforcement\ \ 1. [Potency of the Reinforcer] - Want it to be enough to be reinforcing but not too much or subject will satiate quickly and item will lose its reinforcing qualities. Example? (using edible reinforcer, M&Ms, is one enough but if give large bag may get sick of them).\ \ 2. [Immediacy of Reinforcement] - The greater the delay in administering the reinforcer the less the effect.\ \ 3. [Verbalization] - It helps verbalizing the connection between the behavior and the reinforcement to strengthen the connection.\ \ 4. [Shaping] - If behavior not in repertoire you will never have the opportunity to reinforce it. To get it in repertoire you reinforce successive approximations of behavior. Example: Nonverbal child getting them to ask for things instead of grabbing - first, grunting and pointing, then attempting to say cookie, then saying cookie, then cookie please, then may I have a cookie?\ \ \ VI. Schedules of Reinforcement\ \ 1. Continuous vs. Partial Schedules\ [Continuous] - A reward is given every single time the response is elicited. Generally used only to establish a behavior. Easy to extinguish.\ [Partial] - The subject is only occasionally rewarded for the proper response. More resistant to extinction.\ \ 2. Partial Schedules Either Ratio or Interval\ [Ratio] - Based on the number of correct responses the organism makes between reinforcements.\ [Interval] - Based on the amount of time that has elapsed between reinforcements.\ \ 3. Fixed or Variable Schedules\ [Fixed] - regular schedule\ [Variable] - irregular schedule\ \ 4. Four Possible Partial Schedules\ \ A) [Fixed-Ratio] - Reinforcement depends on a certain amount of behavior being emitted, for example every fifth response is reinforced. Example? (a typist who gets paid after a certain number of pages are typed). Pattern - people generally work hard on FR schedules, pausing briefly after each reward. Problem - if the amount of work responses required before the next reward is large you will likely see low morale and few responses at the beginning of each cycle.\ \ B) Variable-Ratio - The number of required responses varies around some average. Example? (Salesman who sells something to the second customer, then to the sixth, the eighth, etc. also gambler at a slot machine, the faster he puts money in machine the faster he will hit jackpot). Pattern: People tend to work at a high steady rate. No delay because reinforcement may come on next response.\ \ C) [Fixed-Interval] - Reinforcement is given at a predetermined time no matter how many responses have been emitted. Example? (not many naturally occurring examples but studying just before a test may be one). Pattern: scollop effect - begin interval responding slowly but increase as interval progresses in anticipation of reward.\ \ D) [Variable-Interval] - The time a reinforcer will be available varies around some average time. Example? (dialing a number when the line is busy, will get through but don\'t know when). Pattern: steady, moderately paced responses.\ \ E. [Which is Most Resistant to Extinction?]\ Variable interval and variable ratio most resistant to extinction with variable ratio being the best. Why? (never know when the next reinforcement is going to come). If you gradually increase the ratio or interval you can make the behavior even more resistant to extinction. VICARIOUS LEARNING\ (Modeling)\ \ I. Acquisition of Behavior\ \ A. Can we explain the acquisition of all things through classical and operant conditioning? NO!!!\ \ 1. [Classical] - Some fears can not be explained in a classical framework.\ 2. [Operant] - to a strict behaviorist reinforcement is necessary for acquisition of a behavior. People perform apparently novel behaviors in absence of reinforcement.\ 3. [Bandura] - Because of these factors, Bandura offers a social learning framework.\ \ B. Bandura, Ross, & Ross (1963)\ \ 1. Young children saw older children attack a large, inflated \"Bobo\" doll by sitting on it, punching it, kicking it, and hitting it with a wooden mallet while saying such things as \"hit him!\"\ 2. Some children saw the model receive punishment for his aggression, some saw him rewarded, and some saw no consequences at all.\ 3. Then the children were allowed to play for a while with a number of toys including a Bobo doll. Behavior was recorded.\ 4. Only in the condition where the models behavior was punished did the subjects not imitate the aggressive behavior; however, they could recall the behavior later.\ 5. This shows that reinforcement is not necessary for the acquisition of a novel response.\ \ II. Acquisition/Performance Distinction\ \ 1. [Acquiring v. Performing] - Behavior can be acquired but not performed. They learn a behavior by observing someone else engage in a behavior.\ 2. [Reinforcement] - Reinforcement is a critical aspect, not in acquisition, but in performance. When you expect reinforcement, you will engage in the behavior.\ \ 3. [Example] - Murder\ 4. [Timing] - Acquisition and performance could occur almost simultaneously but often there is a time delay between them because (1) they are unable to engage in the modeled behavior; (2) the situation they are in is different so they outcome would be different, wait until different outcome; or (3) socially undesirable behaviors may have severe inhibitions that prevent performance of behavior. MEMORY I. MEMORY 1\. [Definition] - Memory is the capacity to retain and retrieve information. 2\. [Three Basic Memory Processes] - There are three basic tasks of memory. Encoding is the acquisition component. This is transforming raw information into a form in which it can be entered into memory. Storage is the retaining of information over time. Retrieval is the ability to get encoded material back into awareness. 3\. [Information-Processing Approach] - This is an approach to understanding human memory that emphasizes the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information. It uses a computer analogy.\ \ \ II. TYPES OF MEMORY STORAGE 1\. [Sensory Memory] - This is the momentary persistence of sensory information after stimulation has ceased. It begins to decay almost immediately if you don\'t attend to it. You are constantly being bombarded by sensory information so you must control the selection of what you encode. This is called selective attention. 2\. [Short-Term Memory] - This is the memory system that holds limited amounts of information for relatively short periods of time. Information must be transferred from sensory memory to STM in order for it to be processed and become meaningful. This is what we are consciously aware of at any time. The capacity of short-term memory is thought of as being 7 +/- 2 items. Information can be kept in STM indefinitely by rehearsing it. Short-term memory is thought to exist in a bio-electrical state and to be converted into long-term memory it must be incorporated into a chemical state.\ \ 3. [Long-Term Memory] - This is the memory system for large amounts of information over long periods of time. Its capacity is limitless yet retrieval of information is not always easy. For example, sometimes we know we know something but we can\'t remember it. This is referred to as Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon. Long-term memory can be Episodic Memory which is an autobiographical record of what we see, hear, or do or Semantic Memory which is organized knowledge about words or symbols and the rules for manipulating them.\ \ \ III. FORGETTING\ \ 1. [Trace Decay Hypothesis] - This is the simplest view of forgetting. It is simply that information entered into long-term memory fades or decays with the passage of time. Can you remember who was sitting next to you in second grade?\ \ 2. [Interference] - If it is not time that makes you forget things it may be interference of other things that are stored in memory. It can take two forms. Retroactive Interference is when information you are currently learning interferes with what is already in memory. Proactive Interference is when information previously entered into memory interferes with what you are trying to learn now.\ \ 3. [Infantile Amnesia] - You generally cannot remember much of anything that happened to you during the first 3 years of life. This could be because you lacked the brain structures for long-term memory at this age or lacked language which may be necessary to encode information into long-term memory. What memories people think they have from this period are usually things they were told by someone at a later time although you may be certain that you remember it. This is very controversial now because some people, after therapy, insist they remember infantile abuse. Most experts in the field discount this as being suggestions given to them by their therapist.\ \ \ IV. MEMORY RETRIEVAL\ \ 1. [Types of Retrieval] - Retrieval has two forms. Recognition is realizing that the information has been seen or heard before. A song for example. You may not know all the words but you know you have heard it before. Recall entails an active search of long-term memory to actually retrieve a specific piece of information.\ \ 2. [Relearning] - Relearning seemingly forgotten information can take less time than original learning because even though you have forgotten the details, there may be a trace left which facilitates storage and retrieval.\ \ 3. [State Dependent Learning] - Information which is learned in one physiological state may be difficult to retrieve when you are in another physiological state. If you meet someone when you are drunk you may not remember him sober but next time you are drunk you do.\ \ \ 4. [Memory Distortion] - Did you ever remember something one way and a friend remembered it totally different? We all possess schemas, or cognitive frameworks with which we view the world. Once a schema is formed it can influence the way you encode, store, or retrieve information. You are more likely to remember things that support you beliefs.\ \ 5. [Construction] - Our memory is also affected by construction which is our tendency to fill in details when recalling past events or even remembering experiences you never had. You can\'t possibly remember all of the details so when you recall the experience you may put things in that you assumed happened or you wish happened.\ \ 6. [Amnesia] - Amnesia is the loss of memory usually from illness, accident, or drug abuse. Retrograde amnesia is inability to remember things that happened prior to the amnesia inducing event. Anterograde amnesia is the inability to store in long-term memory information that occurs after the amnesia inducing event. PERSONALITY I. DEFINITIONS 1\. [Consistency] - All individuals tend to behave, think, and feel in certain ways that is fairly consistent across time and situation. While some things change, other things remain very stable. 2\. [Personality] - Personality is generally defined as an individual\'s unique and relatively stable patterns of behavior, thoughts, and feelings. 3\. [Behavioral Position] - A strict behaviorist would argue against the existence of personality. They argue that behavior is determined by the situation you are in and consistency in behavior can be explained by consistency of situation. 4\. [Personality and Situations] - Most psychologists would argue that there is an interaction between personality traits and situations. Cheating for example. Would you cheat if you were in the right situation and you knew you wouldn\'t get caught? II\. FREUD\'S THEORY OF PERSONALITY\ \ 1. [Level\'s of Consciousness] - Freud viewed what we were aware of at any time (conscious level) as only the tip of the iceberg. Beneath this level was the vast majority of our consciousness. The preconscious is just below the conscious level. This contains memories and stored knowledge which we are not immediately aware of but which we can retrieve at any time. Beneath the preconscious and forming the largest portion of the human mind is the unconscious. These are thoughts, desires, and impulses of which we are not aware. Even though we are not aware of these, Freud saw these as controlling our behavior and it is the goal of psychoanalysis to get at these unconscious factors. 2\. [Three Components of Personality] \(a) Id: Present at birth. Operates on the pleasure principle. It is there to serve your instincts and it wants immediate gratification. \(b) Ego: Develops later when start learning and thinking logically. Realize that sometimes you may have to delay gratification or find other ways to get it. Works on reality principle, tries to find realistic ways of gratifying instinct. \(c) Superego: This is the ideal moral part. Strives for perfection rather than pleasure or reality. Works through making you feel guilty or ashamed when you do bad. Develops about 5-6 years of age. 3\. [Stages of Psychosexual Development] - Five stages of development. Centers around sex instinct. As you mature your sexual interest shifts to different erogenous zones. Each stage is centered around a particular erogenous zone. \(a) Oral Stage - (birth to 1 year) Erogenous zone is the mouth. Erotic pleasure comes from sucking, biting, spitting, etc.\ (b) Anal Stage - (1-3 years) This is when child gets toilet trained, sphincter muscles begin to mature. Anus is erogenous zone and defecation becomes method of getting erotic pleasure.\ (c) Phallic Stage - (3-6 years) Genital area becomes erogenous zone and child gets sexual pleasure from masturbation. Develop strong sexual desire for parent of the opposite sex. Oedipus Complex: Boy develops a desire to sleep with their mothers and they develop jealous of father so they want to destroy them. When his castration anxiety becomes intense enough he resolves the conflict by identifying with father, act like him, and that way he can vicariously experience mother. Girls experience Electra Complex which is similar to boys except that the girl develops penis envy and desires the father in the hope he shares his penis with her. Resolution is not as clear as for boys, it just fades away when she realizes she can\'t have father but this leads to less developed superego because its development is not based on as much fear (castration).\ (d) Latency Period - (6-12 years) Sex instincts are relatively quiet. This continues up to puberty.\ (e) Genital Stage - (12+) Now interested in sex with opposite sex. Underlying aim is reproduction.\ \ \ III. OTHER PSYCHOANALYTIC VIEWS\ \ 1. [Jung] - Jung was a disciple of Freud but the two of them had a bitter falling out. Jung agreed with Freud on the importance of the unconscious but proposed another important part, the collective unconscious. This is the part of the unconscious that is shared by all human beings and it is passed along to new generations biologically. It contains archetypes which predispose us to view the world in certain ways. Two important archetypes are the anima and animus. The animus is the masculine side of females and the anima is the feminine side of males. When we look for a mate we look for someone who can project this hidden part of our personality. Jung also coined the terms introvert and extrovert to describe individuals who are shy and reclusive, or talkative and sociable.\ \ 2. [Karen Horney] - Freud\'s was a very sexist theory. Horney could be considered one of the first feminists as she criticized Freud for his ideas on female sexuality. Her focus was more on social factors in shaping the developing child rather than sexual factors.\ \ \ IV. HUMANISTIC THEORIES\ \ 1. [Overview] - While specific theories have their differences, humanistic theories are all based on a much more optimistic view of human nature. They propose that all humans strive for personal growth and development.\ \ 2. [Rogers\' Self Theory] - Carl Rogers proposed that all humans are striving to become fully functioning persons. These are psychologically healthy people who enjoy life to the fullest. Why aren\'t we all this way? Because a gap develops between of self-concept (the beliefs we have about ourselves) and reality. This creates anxiety and to reduce this anxiety we do things like distort our perceptions of reality or deny reality. This leads to maladjustment and personal unhappiness. This happens because we grow up in an atmosphere of conditional positive regard, our parents approve of us only when we behave in certain ways. To overcome this, you need an atmosphere of unconditional positive regard where you know you will be accepted no matter what you do or say.\ \ \ 3. [Maslow] - Maslow\'s need hierarchy was already discussed but this is also considered a humanistic theory. The key here is self-actualization, the top of the hierarchy. Maslow saw psychologically healthy people as ones who have attained self-actualization. They have reached their true potential, they recognize their shortcomings as well as their strengths, and they are interested in maintaining their own standards which may not necessarily be societies.\ \ 4. [Self-Disclosure] - This is simply the act of revealing intimate information about oneself to another person. this forms the basis of many therapeutic approaches, especially humanistic approaches. Does it work? It does seem to help both psychological and physical health although it may be best if it is reciprocal, that is, the person you are disclosing to discloses back.\ \ \ V. TRAIT THEORIES\ \ 1. [Overview] - These are theories that focus on identifying key dimensions of personality on which people may differ. Ask class for examples of traits.\ \ 2. [Allport\'s Trait Theory] - Allport divided personality traits into several major categories.\ (a) Secondary Traits - These are least important and they exert a small and relatively specific influence on personality.\ (b) Central Traits - These are more important and are the five to ten traits that best describe the individual. This is the uniqueness of an individual\'s personality.\ (c) Cardinal Trait - This is a single, all-important trait that characterize a few people. Not everyone has this but someone like Michael Milken may have one (greed).\ \ 3. [Key Dimensions of Personality] - Research has identified five robust dimensions that characterize personality.\ (a) Extraversion - Social, talkative fun-loving to shy, silent, and cautious (introversion).\ \ (b) Agreeableness - Good natured, gentle, cooperative, helpful to irritable, suspicious, and uncooperative.\ \ (c) Conscientiousness - Careful, self-disciplined, and responsible to careless, weak-willed, and unscrupulous.\ \ (d) Emotional Stability - Poised, calm, composed, and not hypochondriacal to nervous, anxious, excitable, and hypochondriacal.\ \ (e) Openness to Experience - Imaginative, sensitive, intellectual to insensitive, narrow, and crude.\ \ \ VI. MEASURING PERSONALITY\ \ 1. [Objective Tests] - These are generally self-report measures in which people are asked whether statements are true or false about themselves or whether they agree or disagree about something. just like on intelligence tests, performance is compared to some norm group. The MMPI is the most common. It contains over 500 true-false questions.\ \ 2. [Projective Tests] - These are tests where you are shown a relatively ambiguous stimuli and you respond to it by telling what you see or telling a story about it. The most common are the Rorschach which is an inkblot test and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) in which a picture is shown and you tell a story about it. The utility of these tests is not agreed upon. Many people believe they are worthless. PSYCHOPATHOLOGY I. DEFINING PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDER 1\. [What We Call It] - Psychological disorders, as a class, are called many things. We use the term psychopathology, mental illness, behavior disorder, emotional disturbance, etc. They all mean roughly the same thing although the severity of the disorder may vary greatly. They share the following features however. 2\. [Distress] - The person is experiencing some sort of negative reaction such as anxiety, depression, confusion, etc. 3\. [Atypical] - Behavior deviates from what society believes is normal. They may react differently to normal stressors or engage in behaviors society considers deviant. This type of definition has led to some behaviors we may now not consider as mental illness to be labeled as pathology such as homosexuality. This was considered to be a mental illness until the 1970\'s. 4\. [Maladaptive] - The disorder interferes with normal, every day functioning. They may not be able to hold a job, have normal social interactions, or care for themselves. 5\. [Unacceptable to Society] - The behavior is in some way viewed negatively by society, as either objectionable or unacceptable. Again, homosexuality fell into this category. II\. HISTORY OF PERSPECTIVES ON MENTAL ILLNESS 1\. [Possessed by Demons] - The earliest view of mental illness was that people suffering from it were possessed by demons. People were actually treated by drilling holes into their skulls to let the demons out. This procedure was called trephining. 2\. [Medical Model] - The next view of mental disorder held that mental illness, just as physical illness, was the result of biological or medical factors. This view is still widely held today and it is probably valid for many mental disorders. It did lead to more humane treatment for the mentally ill. 3\. [Psychodynamic Perspective] - This is the Freudian perspective. It holds that mental disorders are the result of unconscious urges or impulses. 4\. [Behavioral Perspective] - This perspective holds that abnormal behavior is learned just like normal behavior. You are the product of your environment and through modeling, and social and cultural factors you learn to behave in a maladaptive manner.\ \ \ III. DSM-IV\ \ 1. [DSM-IV] - The American Psychiatric Association publishes the \"bible\" of psychiatric diagnosis. It is the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. It is usually just referred to as the DSM-IV, meaning that the version we are currently using is the third edition revised.\ \ 2. [Diagnosis] - What the DSM-IV does is give you a listing of behaviors that are associated with each classification. In order to use a diagnosis, the individual must meet the specific criteria set forth in the manual. It makes no claims to etiology (usually, PTSD is an exception) nor does it propose treatment.\ \ 3. [Constantly Revised] - As knowledge and attitudes change, so does the DSM-IV. As I mentioned, homosexuality was once considered a mental disorder, it no longer is. Other conditions like PMS (premenstrual Syndrome) and PTSD have been added in more recent versions. Others change. For example, what we now refer to as ADHD (Attention Deficit hyperactivity Disorder) was called Minimal Brain Dysfunction in DSM-II and Attention Deficit Disorder with or without Hyperactivity in DSM-III. DSM-IV is returning to the DSM-III categorization.\ \ \ IV. ANXIETY DISORDERS\ \ 1. [Anxiety] - We have all experienced anxiety, it is part of everyday life. For anxiety to become a disorder it must be intense enough and of long enough duration to cause disruption in functioning. There are different types of anxiety disorders.\ \ 2. [Generalized Anxiety Disorder] - This is when the person is experiencing persistent and severe anxiety in most situations. In other words, they worry about everything and can\'t function. There is a constant fear, tension, and dread.\ \ 3. [Panic Attacks] - This is when an individual experiences sudden intense anxiety which temporarily renders them incapable of functioning. They are brief but intense but do not appear to be triggered by a particular object or event.\ \ 4. [Phobias] - A phobia is defined as an irrational fear of a particular object or event such as a fear of snakes, heights, etc. We talked about these bore when we discussed classical conditioning because they are though to be learned through classical conditioning. Everyone has fears but it does not become a phobia unless it interferes with normal functioning.\ \ 5. [Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)] - An obsession is a thought that you can\'t get out of your mind. A compulsion is a ritualistic behavior that you engage in over and over again such as washing your hands over and over to get rid of germs. These are anxiety disorders because the obsession creates anxiety and the compulsion is your means to overcome anxiety. Both are maladaptive and disrupt normal functioning.\ \ 6. [Treatment] - Generalized anxiety disorders are usually treated with medication but phobias and OCD are usually treated behaviorally.\ \ \ V. DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS\ \ 1. [Overview] - These include disorders of though in which you lose identity or memory.\ \ 2. [Psychogenic Amnesia] - Amnesia is a loss of memory. while it usually happens due to some physical cause it is sometimes due to psychological causes such as experiencing trauma or extreme stress. When there is no physical cause we call it psychogenic amnesia. It usually involves a selective or localized forgetting but in rare instances it can involve a total loss of identity.\ \ 3. [Multiple Personality] - This is very rare, much rarer than you would imagine considering made for TV movies and defense arguments in criminal trials. This is when an individual possesses more than one distinct personality and they may not be aware of each other. This is still a controversial area and many people do not believe it actually exists.\ \ VI. SOMATOFORM DISORDERS\ \ 1. [Overview] - This refers to disorders in which the person experiences physical symptoms in the absence of a physical etiology. It could be paralysis, deafness, or other physical disorder.\ \ \ 2. [Hypochondriasis] - You have all heard the term hypochondriac. That is what this is. They have an extreme fear of illness and while there is no physical illness, they constantly think they have something or that something (like cancer) is about to appear. To be a true hypochondriac you must be thinking of this constantly and it must disrupt your life. The key here is that there is really nothing wrong with you, you just think there is.\ \ 3. [Conversion Disorder] - In conversion disorder there is an actual impairment but there is no physical reason for it. Individuals have experienced blindness, deafness, and paralysis for no apparent physical reason. There have even been people who have appeared pregnant when they weren\'t. This is usually the result of extreme stress or trauma.\ \ \ VII. SEXUAL DISORDERS\ \ 1. [Sexual Dysfunction] - These include disturbances in sexual desire, arousal, and ability to achieve orgasm. Disorders of desire include an aversion or a lack of interest in sex. Disorders of arousal include failure to achieve erection in males or lubrication or vaginal constriction in women. Disorders of orgasm include failure to, achieve orgasm or premature ejaculation in men. This does not include individuals who have these problems due to medical reasons.\ \ 2. [Paraphilias] - A paraphilia involves arousal only to inappropriate sexual objects. These include pedophilia which is desire to have sex with young children. Fetishes which is arousal to inanimate objects such as shoes, underwear, and even dead bodies. Transvesitism is an example of a fetish. Sadism and Masochism is when you get sexual pleasure from receiving or inflicting pain and humiliation. Exhibitionism and voyeurism are also pedaphilias.\ \ 3. [Gender Identity] - This is transsexualism in which you believe you were born with one sexual genitalia but your identity is with the other gender. It may result in a sex-change operation.\ \ \ VIII. MOOD DISORDERS\ \ 1. [Overview] - These are also called affective disorders and they involve inappropriate affect such as depression or extreme elation.\ \ 2. [Bipolar Disorder] - This is also called manic-depressive and these individuals experience extreme mood swings. they vary from extreme depression to mania in which they are extremely excitable and energetic. They are usually treated with Lithium.\ \ 3. [Major Depression] - This is an overwhelming and persistent feeling of unhappiness and despair. They see life as hopeless and tend to withdraw and become lethargic. If a loved one dies you become depressed, that is normal. This is prolonged feeling and not the temporary reaction to an unhappy experience. It may even lead to suicide. Treatment is usually with medication combined with therapy.\ \ \ IX. PERSONALITY DISORDERS\ \ 1. [Overview] - These are when a person has some personality trait which is inflexible and causes disruption of their everyday functioning. They include deviant behaviors and thoughts.\ \ 2. [Antisocial Personality Disorder] - These people are dangerous to others and they include delinquency, lying, and criminal activity. They are generally aggressive, irritable, impulsive, and fail to take responsibility for their actions. They are sometimes referred to as sociopaths. More common in males.\ \ 3. [Histrionic Personality Disorder] - This involves exaggerated displays of emotions. Even trivial events are blown up out of proportion to what happened. Everyday activities become major life events and they don\'t see why others don\'t share their concerns. More common in females.\ \ 4. [Avoidant Personality Disorder] - This is characterized by extreme shyness, poor self-esteem, and an inability to take criticism. They must have total acceptance so to avoid rejection they stay away from normal social interactions.\ \ 5. [Dependent Personality Disorder] - This is also the result of low self-esteem and they show extreme dependence on others. They let others tell them everything they are to do. They make no decisions on their own.\ \ \ \ X. SCHIZOPHRENIA\ \ 1. [Overview] - These a the most serious psychological disorders and involve a lack of contact with reality. It is sometimes called a thought disorder and it is characterized by the following.\ \ 2. [Disorder of Thought and Language] - They do not think or speak like others. You could say it is weird. They often create their own words and they are hard to understand because their communication may consist of a bunch of seemingly unrelated statements. They also frequently have delusions which are firmly held beliefs that have no basis in reality. One of the more common type is delusions of persecution where you think everyone is out to get you. There are also delusions of grandeur where you think you are someone famous or powerful. Finally, there may be delusions of control in which they think that some evil force or God is controlling their brains.\ \ 3. [Disturbance of Perception] - They may not perceive the world in the same way as others. Most common is hallucinations where they have sensory experiences that have no basis in reality. The most common are auditory hallucinations where they hear voices but they may also have visual hallucination where they see things that are not there.\ \ 4. [Disturbance of Emotion] - The third key symptom of schizophrenia is inappropriate or unusual mood reactions. They may laugh at something sad or cry at a joke or do either for no reason at all.\ \ \ XI. TYPES OF SCHIZOPHRENIA\ \ 1. [Disorganized Schizophrenia] - The most striking feature is a childlike behavior. They act like young children do by giggling, making faces, etc.\ \ 2. [Catatonic Schizophrenia] - This involves a disturbance in motor behavior. They may be totally immobile and sit or stand in a position for indefinite periods of times. They may also have a waxy flexibility. That is you can mold them like a doll and they will maintain that position.\ \ 3. [Paranoid Schizophrenia] - This is characterized by delusions of persecution. They think everyone is out to hurt them. This is the most common type of schizophrenia.