Kajian Self dalam Dunia Sosial (PDF)

The Self in a Social World Hammad Zahid Muharram, M.Psi, Psikolog [email protected] Apa itu self? Pada dasarnya, kita memiliki banyak macam self yang kita tampilkan dengan berbagai cara di berbagai situasi dan keberadaan ‘penonton’ yang relevan. Contoh: A adalah seorang ana...

The Self in a Social World Hammad Zahid Muharram, M.Psi, Psikolog [email protected] Apa itu self? Pada dasarnya, kita memiliki banyak macam self yang kita tampilkan dengan berbagai cara di berbagai situasi dan keberadaan ‘penonton’ yang relevan. Contoh: A adalah seorang anak, mahasiswa, teman, penikmat film, pelukis, dll Self sangat terikat dengan social world → social self → what we know about ourselves The self is the story we from social relationship (William James, 1890) tell ourselves about → cerita tentang self selalu melibatkan ourselves (Heinzen & hubungan dengan orang lain! Goodfriend, 2019) Table of contents 01 Self: Spotlight and Illusion 02 Self Concept: Who am I? What is The Nature And 03 Motivating Power of Self-esteem? 04 Self Presentation  Self: Spotlight and 01 Illusion Apakah kamu sering merasa bahwa orang lain memperhatikanmu? Jika iya, maka itu adalah Spotlight Effect Yang berarti, keyakinan bahwa orang lain lebih memperhatikan penampilan dan perilaku kita daripada yang Spotlight Effect berarti melihat diri kita sebenarnya. sebagai pusat perhatian, sehingga secara intuitif melebih-lebihkan sejauh mana perhatian orang lain tertuju pada kita. Perhatikan gambar ini! Anak laki-laki ini mungkin mengira bahwa semua orang menatapnya dan yang dilakukan neneknya adalah hal memalukan, padahal tidak ada seorang pun yang memperhatikan dia → Spotlight Effect Karena sangat sadar akan emosi kita sendiri, kita sering kali mengalami illusion of transparency. Jika kita bahagia, atau sedih, dan kita tahu itu, maka wajah kita pasti akan menunjukkannya. Dan orang lain, kita duga, akan menyadarinya. Padahal? Spotlight effect dan Illusion of transparency hanyalah dua dari sekian banyak contoh interaksi antara sense of self dan dunia sosial kita Yang berarti ada hal lain, diantaranya: Social surroundings affect our self-awareness → Selalu aware saat berada di lingkungan tertentu. Self-interest colors our social judgment → Orang terdekat pasti dianggap baik. Self-concern motivates our social behavior → Selalu memantau perilaku dan ekspektasi orang lain. Social relationships help define our sense of self → Identitas yang berbeda di lingkungan.  Self Concept: Who 02 am I? Ps. Siapkan alat tulismu! Tugasmu sekarang adalah menulis, siapa dirimu? Maks 250 kata. Tulis 3 digit NPM di bagian akhir kalimat. Bagaimana peran otak bagi perkembangan diri? Sebagian besar penelitian menunjukkan peran penting dari otak kanan (van Veluw & Chance, 2014). Cobalah buat otak kananmu tertidur (dengan obat bius pada arteri karotis kanan), kamu mungkin akan kesulitan mengenali wajahmu sendiri. “Korteks prefrontal medial,” sebuah jalur neuron yang Elemen-elemen dari terletak di celah antara belahan otak tepat di belakang konsep diri dan mata, adalah bagian yang berkontribusi menyatukan sense keyakinan-keyakinan of self. Jalur ini menjadi lebih aktif ketika kita berpikir spesifik yang digunakan tentang diri kita sendiri (Farb et al., 2007; Zimmer, 2005). untuk mendefinisikan diri disebut sebagai schema. Lalu, bagaimana contoh self-schema? Skema diri kita = konsep diri kita yang menganggap diri kita seperti apa. Misalnya atletis, kelebihan berat badan, pintar, atau apa pun yang memengaruhi cara kita memandang, mengingat, dan mengevaluasi orang lain dan diri kita sendiri. Contoh: Jika atletik adalah pusat dari konsep diri kita (self-schema), maka kita akan cenderung memperhatikan tubuh dan keterampilan orang lain. Kita akan dengan cepat mengingat pengalaman yang berhubungan dengan olahraga. Dan kita akan menerima informasi yang sesuai dengan skema diri (Kihlstrom & Cantor, 1984). Jika ulang tahun teman kita berdekatan dengan ulang tahun kita, tentu akan lebih mudah mengingatnya (Kesebir & Oishi, 2010). Self-schema yang membentuk konsep diri kita membantu kita mengatur dan mengingat pengalaman kita. THE NATURE OF THE SELF-CONCEPT Self-concept berubah dari sejak masa anak-anak hingga masa dewasa: Anak-anak → konkrit (Montemayor & Eisen, 1977) Dewasa → lebih abstrak, penekanan pada kondisi psikologis dan penilaian orang lain (Hart & Damon, 1986; Livesley & Bromley, 1973; Montemayor & Eisen, 1977) Transformasi dalam hal moralitas menjadi kunci utama tentang atribusi diri seseorang (Strohminger & Nichols, 2014). Aronson et al (2019) p.122, fig 5.1! Moralitas dilihat sebagai pusat dari self-concept, bahkan lebih dari proses kognitif atau hasrat yang ada pada diri seseorang (Goodwin, et al, 2014; Strohminger & Nichols, 2014) SOCIAL COMPARISON Bagaimana kita mengevaluasi diri dengan membandingkannya dengan orang lain. Terkadang didasarkan pada informasi yang kurang lengkap. Contoh: ketika melihat orang lain di media sosial Terdiri dari dua jenis: 1. Downward social comparison: membandingkan dengan orang lain yang dianggap less capable dari kita 2. Upward social comparison: membandingkan dengan orang lain yang dianggap more capable dari kita Evaluasi diri bergantung pada standar perbandingan yang kita gunakan! Mengapa kita melakukan hal ini? SOCIAL COMPARISON Orang lain membantu menentukan standar yang digunakan untuk mendefinisikan diri kita sebagai kaya atau miskin, pintar atau bodoh, tinggi atau pendek: kita membandingkan diri kita dengan mereka dan mempertimbangkan bagaimana kita berbeda. Terdapat dua perspektif teori yang membahas konsekuensi perbandingan sosial: 1. Self-evaluation maintenance model: membandingkan dalam konteks level personal 2. Social identity theory: membandingkan dalam konteks level grup Self and Culture SELF-AWARENESS Sejauh mana individu fokus pada perilakunya dengan mengevaluasi dan membandingkan hal tersebut terhadap standar dan value yang dimilikinya (Aronson, et al, 2019); sejauh mana individu menyadari self- discrepancy pada perilakunya (Sanderson, 2010). Self-discrepancy: gap antara actual self dan ideal self Self-awareness membuat kita menjadi objektif, judgemental terhadap diri sendiri seperti ‘outsider’ melihat kita. The Self in a Social World Hammad Zahid Muharram, M.Psi, Psikolog [email protected] Table of contents 01 Self: Spotlight and Illusion 02 Self Concept: Who am I? What is The Nature And 03 Motivating Power of Self-esteem? 04 Self Presentation FLASHBACK SELF didefinisikan sebagai sekumpulan kesadaran dari eksistensi unik seseorang, yang secara tradisional disebut oleh para filsuf sebagai identitas personal → Dictionary of Psychology (Reber, 1985) SELF adalah suatu kekuatan dalam diri yang berfungsi sebagai pengontrol (self control) dan pengarah (self regulation) dari segala sesuatu yang ada di dalam diri seperti motif, rasa takut, dan kebutuhan → Adler (Calhoun & Acocella, 1990) FLASHBACK Tujuan utama dari self adalah untuk mengendalikan respon individu, mulai dari proses psikis internal, seperti mengklasifikasikan respon, memilih respon, membuat keputusan, sampai menampilkan tingkah laku yang tampak (Schmeichel, Vohs, & Baumeister, 2003). → memiliki fungsi regulasi (self regulation) dan kendali (self control). Atas dasar pandangan bahwa manusia adalah biological being, dan bukti empiris kajian sosial, representasi neural self bisa berbeda pada individu dari latar belakang budaya yang berbeda (Ng, H, Ha,. Lai, 2010). → dipengaruhi oleh gen dan budaya.  What is The Nature And 03 Motivating Power of Self- esteem? TRUE SELF TRUE SELF adalah serangkaian karakteristik bawaan dalam diri individu yang relative permanen yang harus ditemukan oleh individu agar ia dapat memiliki kehidupan yang bermakna (Schlegel & Hicks, 2012). SELF DETERMINATION THEORY (SDT), mendefinisikan true self sebagai aspek self yang berisi penghayatan akan kemandirian individu dalam menentukan individualitasnya, disebabkan oleh faktor internal, bermakna secara personal, dan diarahkan oleh self-nya. Teori ini melihat self sebagai sesuatu yang dihayati oleh individu itu sendiri. Frame of reference-nya adalah individu. TRUE SELF dianggap sebagai manifestasi dari inti individualitas seseorang, antara lain spirit, soul, real meaning, dan fundamental nature. Faktor-faktor apa saja yang mempengaruhi Self Concept? Peran-peran Social identity Social comparison (perbandingan dengan orang lain) Keberhasilan & kegagalan Bagaimana orang lain menilai kita Budaya tempat kita tumbuh atau berada Masih ingat social comparison? Konsep diri terbentuk tidak di dalam ruang isolasi, melainkan di dalam ruang sosial, sehingga cara membentuknya melibatkan pembandingan sosial. Melibatkan: upward-downward, complete- incomplete information, subjective- objective based social judgement. SELF-ESTEEM Evaluasi umum seseorang mengenai dirinya sendiri, atau perasaan bahwa dirinya berharga. Crocker & Wolfe (2001): Self- Self-esteem yang rendah berisiko schemas & possible selves yang depresi, penyalahgunaan obat- positif akan mendorong obatan, atau munculnya perilaku munculnya self-esteem delinquent (Baumeister dkk, 2003) Brown &Dutton (1994): Orang- Self-esteem yang terlalu tinggi orang yang menghargai dirinya mendorong munculnya perilaku akan juga menghargai penam- ekstrim juga. Misalnya seperti pilannya, kemampuannya, dll. yang ditemukan pada pimpinan geng, teroris (Dawes, 1994, 1998). Seberapa berharga saya? Memunculkan motivasi untuk mempertahankan, melindungi, meningkatkan HARGA DIRI. Menjadikan HARGA DIRI sebagai faktor yang berpotensi untuk menjadi penggerak perilaku. Kualitas harga diri dan dampaknya? RENDAH Lemah secara emosional, TINGGI mudah mengalami Emosi positif, daya lentur kecemasan, ingin emosi (resiliensi) tinggi, menyendiri. Depresi, memiliki kesediaan enggan bekerja. berinisiatif. Ketika berada dalam situasi Tantangannya adalah terancam, mudah melihat NARCISSISM. segala sesuatu secara negatif. Pengaruh Harga Diri terhadap SELF EFFICACY dan ATRIBUSI SELF EFFICACY: Keyakinan seseorang tentang kemampuannya untuk melakukan/ menyelesaikan suatu pekerjaan. Harga diri rendah > self efficacy rendah Harga diri tinggi > self efficacy tinggi ATRIBUSI: Keputusan menjadikan sesuatu sebagai penyebab atas sesuatu Upaya mempertahankan harga diri → mengatribusikan kegagalan kepada faktor eksternal (keberuntungan) dan mengatribusikan keberhasilan kepada faktor personal (kemampuan, usaha). 04 Self Presentation Presentasi diri, apa itu? Tindakan yang mengekspresikan diri sedemikian rupa sehingga menciptakan kesan yang disukai orang lain atau diri sendiri. Memunculkan kemungkinan terjadinya: False modesty: kesederhanaan yang keliru. Self-handicapping: melindungi gambaran tentang diri dengan perilaku yang kelak bisa menjadi alasan kegagalan. False self presentation: pemilik second account medsos yang mengunggah data yang bertentangan dengan diri sebenarnya. Self monitoring → Selalu memperhatikan bagaimana penampilan diri kita di dalam situasi sosial, dan berusaha menyesuaikan penampilan tersebut untuk menciptakan kesan (impression) yang kita inginkan (walaupun sampai menyakiti diri) SELF SERVING BIAS Pada dasarnya kita lebih merasa siap untuk menerima pujian atas keberhasilan kita. Terhadap kegagalan, kita cenderung memakluminya dengan mengaitkan pada sebab-sebab eksternal, dan menilai diri lebih baik dari rata- rata orang lain. Pentingnya self-control! Self-control requires energy—not just mental energy, but physical energy. Self-control is like a muscle: It can get tired when you use it too much. Willpower requires energy But self-control can get stronger if it’s used more. Improving self-control in one area leads to improvements in others. Practicing self-control in one area, improved their self-control overall (Oaten & Cheng, 2006) Jangan bikin resolusi yang banyak, lalu mengerjakan semuanya sekaligus di bulan Januari. Analogi belanjalah saat kamu butuh.  Thanks! Do you have any questions? [email protected] Slidesgo CREDITS: This presentation template was created by Slidesgo, including icons by Flaticon, infographics & images by Freepik Flaticon Freepik and content by Swetha Tandri  SOCIAL BELIEFS AND JUDGMENTS ZAINAL ABIDIN Photo by 林 慕尧 / Chris Lim from East Coast (东海岸), Singapore (新加坡) / CC BY- SA 2.0 HOW DO WE JUDGE OUR SOCIAL WORLDS, CONSCIOUSLY AND UNCONSCIOUSLY? “The heart has its reasons which reason does not know,” observed seventeenth-century philosopher-mathematician Blaise Pascal. Three centuries later, scientists have proved Pascal correct. Studies of our unconscious information processing confirm our limited access to what’s going on in our minds (Bargh et al., 2012; Banaji & Greenwald, 2013; Strack & Deutsch, 2004). We have two brain systems. System 1 functions automatically and out of our awareness (it’s often called “intuition” or a “gut feeling”), whereas System 2 requires our conscious attention and effort. System 1 influences more of our actions than we realize. For example, small reminders can influence our thinking without our knowing it, a process called priming.  HOW DO WE JUDGE OUR SOCIAL WORLDS, CONSCIOUSLY AND UNCONSCIOUSLY? CONDITION, ISSUE, System 1 EVENT System 2 Unconscious reasoning Conscious reasoning Judgement based on intuition Judgement based on examination Processes information quickly Processes information slowly Hypothetical reasoning OR Logical reasoning Large capacity DANIEL Small capacity Unrelated to working memory KAHNEMAN: Related to working memory Effortlessly and automatically System 1 (Fast, With effort and control Unintentional thinking unconscious) vs Intentional thinking Influenced by experiences, system 2 (Slow, Influenced by facts, logic and evidence emotions and memories conscious) Used when System 1 fails to form a Can be overridden by System 2 logical/acceptable conclusion  How we think about the social world, our attempts to understand it, and ourselves and our place in it (Fiske and Taylor, 2008; Higgins and Kruglanski, 1996) “Cara kita menginterpretasi, menganalisis, Social mengingat, dan menggunakan informasi tentang dunia sosial” cognition “Cara-cara kita berpikir tentang orang lain.”  - Skema = kerangka atau struktur mental yg berfungsi untuk mengorganisasi, mengolah, dan Skema = menggunakan informasi social adalah SKEMA komponen - Schema =mental framework yang membantu dasar dari manusia untuk kognisi. mengorganisasikan informasi sosial, mengarahkan perilaku, dan pemrosesan informasi yang sesuai  Fungsi Skema Fungsi skema = menyaring / Tanpa skema, kita seperti mencetak / menyederhanakan penderita ”Korsakov’s beragam stimulus atau informasi syndrome”  selalu lupa tg sosial yang melimpah, sehingga stimulus yang baru dikenal dapat diproses dan dipahami karena tidak ada pengkodean menurut skema-skema yang kita melalui skema miliki. Jenis-jenis objek skema: a. Orang atau Person (Persons) b. Peran (Roles)  misal: peran laki- laki dan perempuan; anak-anak dan orang dewasa; dst c. Peristiwa (Events)  Pilpres, Keputusan MK No 90 (meloloskan Gibran sebagai Cawapres) dan No 60 (membatalkan Kaesang sebagai Cagub atau Cawagub), Kasus Jesica, Kasus Vina, dll.  The process whereby our first impression of another person causes us to interpret his or her subsequent behavior in a manner consistent with the first Primacy impression. effect Maka, jika kesan pertama tentang seseorang itu baik, selanjutkan akan dinilai baik. Sebaliknya pun demikian  Begitu terbentuk, skema akan sangat berpengaruh pada kognisi sosial individu, dan bahkan berpotensi memengaruhi tingkah laku individu itu. Contoh: -stereotip tentang kelompok sosial tertentu (misalnya, penyandang HIV/AIDS, atau kelompok etnis tertenu) dan tingkah laku kita terhadapnya Pengaruh skema terhadap kognisi sosial Skema berpengaruh thd 3 proses dasar kognisi: attention, coding, retrieval SOCIAL STIMULI ATTENTION CODING RETRIEVAL 1. Terhadap atensi Skema sering berperan sebagai penyaring/filter: informasi yg dinilai konsisten dengan skema diproses secara otomatis dan lebih mudah masuk ke dalam skema yang sudah ada, dibandingkan yang tidak konsisten, kecuali informasi-informasi tertentu yang ekstrim. Contoh: Skema kognitif kita tentang persahabatan antar-pria tidak melibatkan sentuhan fisik. Jika perilaku yang ditampilkan dua pria yang bersahabat sesuai dengan skema itu, maka pemrosesan informasi tentang kedua sahabat tersebut lebih mudah diolah oleh kita dan hasilnya langsung diterima oleh kesadaran karena sesuai dengan skema kita tentang sahabat. 2. Terhadap pengkodean Informasi yang konsisten dg skema, lebih mungkin untuk dikodekan (encoding). Namun, yang tidak konsisten mungkin dibedakan, tapi dalam label yang unik (label baru atau berbeda). Contoh gambar di atas mungkin diberi label (skema): ”gay” – tidak diberi label ”sahabat”, karena dianggap tidak konsisten dengan label ”sahabat”  Baik informasi/gejala 3. Terhadap retrieval: yang konsisten individu lebih maupun yg tidak mampu mengingat konsisten sama-sama informasi yang sesuai dapat diingat, tetapi dengan skema yang pada umumnya info sudah ada yang konsisten lebih dibandingkan yang dapat diingat drpd tidak (belum) ada yang tidak konsisten  Sisi negatif skema: 1. Perseverance effect (efek bertahan): sekali skema terbentuk, sulit untuk diubah, bahkan ketika menghadapi fakta-fakta yang yang lebih realistik. Misal: stereotip dan prasangka 2. Menjadi dasar untuk terbentuknya prasangka 3. Self-fulfilling prophecy (ramalan yang mewujudkan dirinya sediri) Dengan adanya skema maka dunia sosial yang kita alami/ amati menjadi konsisten dengan skema yang kita miliki. Ini berarti bahwa dunia sosialdipersepsi oleh indivisu tidak murni objektif, melainkan dicetak oleh skema-skema yang sudah ada dan dikodekan berdasarkan skema- skema sebelumnya  Rush nasabah BCA tahun 1997-98; Prediksi nilai rupiah terhadap dollar AS akan menurun. Akibatnya, orang beli dollar, sehingga nilai rupiah makin terpuruk. CONTOH: Menilai orang lain sombong dan perilaku kita terhadapnya jadi tidak suka. Orang lain akan betul2 menjadi ”sombong” karena menilai sikap kita buruk terhadapnya Meski demikian, Misal: perlakuan ada aspek positif guru terhadap dari self-fulfilling murid yang diduga prophecy ber-IQ tinggi: Heuristik HEURISTIK Dunia sangat kompleks Atas dasar itu, kita sering sedangkan kapasitas pemrosesan mengambil ”jalan pintas” atau kognitif kita terbatas. Maka ”jalan memotong” dalam terjadilah ”information berpikir, di antaranya adalah overload”, keadaan informasi melalui ”heuristik” yangg sifatnya yang melampaui batas kapasitas ”automatic processing” manusia untuk memprosesnya.  Heuristik Suatu bentuk jalan pintas (shortcut) dalam berpikir, yakni dengan cara cepat dan sederhana kita membuat keputusan atau kesimpulan Catatan: kita sering membuat keputusan atau kesimpulan yang kompleks dengan cara ini, bahkan ketika masih ada waktu untuk berpikir secara rasional (Ingat fast thinking versi Kahneman) Jenis-jenis heuristik: 1. Representativeness Kecenderungan individu untuk menilai secara cepat tentang orang lain atau peristiwa tertentu berdasarkan pada ketersediaan informasi spesifik yang dapat diingat dan yang merepresentasikan orang atau peristiwa tersebut Misal: Apakah Frank itu seorang engineer atau lawyer? 80% subjek menjawab ia adalah lawyer (Fischhoff, et.all, 1984)  1. Representativeness Catatan: Sangat mungkin gejala ini terjadi dalam konteks organisasi, bukan hanya pada individu Misal: A company is going through a financial crisis. So it can review how other organizations in comparable situations have recovered. It will aid in determining which methods or techniques to employ to achieve effective results. 2. Availability Kecenderungan untuk menggunakan strategi berpikir atau membuat penilaian cepat yang didasarkan pada ketersediaan informasi spesifik yang mudah diingat dan tersedia dalam memori Misal: Di media masa dan medsos akhir-akhir ini banyak selebritas yang bercerai. Kasus ini lalu digeneralisasi tentang tingginya tingkat perceraian dan dijadikan sebagai dasar untuk menunda atau takut akan pernikahan  Suara bunyi di dapur setelah menonton film horor  3. Anchoring and adjustment Kecenderungan untuk berpikir dengan cara menggunakan informasi atau pengalaman atau nilai tertentu sebagai landasan awal penilaian dan kemudian disesuaikan dengan, atau digunakan untuk menilai informasi, pengalaman, atau peristiwa berikutnya. Misal: “Hukuman yang diputuskan oleh hakim terhadap terdakwa Y terlalu rendah. Tahun lalu, dalam kasus serupa, terdakwa X diberi hukuman yang jauh lebiih berat oleh hakim  Cara 1: Cara 2 anchoring and adjustment: penjual berpeluang berhasil memikat pembeli. Kenapa?  Negativity bias. Sumber- sumber lain yg berpotensi -Kita lebih terpengaruh oleh informasi menimbulka negatif tentang diri kita dibandingkan n kesalahan informasi positif dalam kognisi -Kita pun lebih mampu mengingat secara akurat informasi negatif dibandingkan sosial informasi positif atau netral  Optimistic (overconfident) bias. Sumber-sumber Pada umumnya orang sangat optimis tentang lain yg keputusan yang mereka buat berpotensi Akibat kecenderungan yang terlalu optimistik itu, mereka sering melakukan planning fallacy, menimbulkan sehingga menimbulkan kerugian (besar) kesalahan Misal: karena yakin menang, penjudi bertaruh dalam dalam jumlah besar, dan kalah (karena peluang untuk menang dalam judi, sangat kecil kognisi sosial Pengusaha mengerjakanl proyek besar dan mengalami kerugian dengan setumpuk utang ke bank Pinjol dan judi online? Sumber-sumber lain yg berpotensi menimbulkan kesalahan dalam kognisi sosial Confirmation bias: the human tendency to only seek out information that supports one position or idea. Counter-factual thinking Siapa yang lebih bahagia – peraih medali perunggu atau medali perak? Counterfactual thinking: the human tendency to create possible alternatives to life events that have already occurred; something that is contrary to what actually happened  Counter-factual thinking: Kecenderungan untuk berpikir atau membayangkan akibat dari suatu perbuatan yang telah dilakukan. Hasilnya? Atau puas, atau tidak puas (menyesal)  SELAMAT BELAJAR ATTRIBUTION  The tendency of people to explain other’s behavior (Myers, 2007)  Atribusi adalah upaya manusia untuk memahami penyebab dibalik tingkah laku orang lain, dan juga penyebab tingkah laku kita sendiri (Baron, Byrne, Newcomb, 2008)  External or situational Exp: He was late because of heavy traffic ATTRIBUTION Internal or dispositional Exp: He was late because he doesn’t care about me ATTRIBUTION’S THEORY The theory of how people explain others’ behavior  Heider (1958): Setiap orang pada dasarnya adalah ”naive psychologist”, karena (seperti psikolog) berusaha untuk mencari tahu penyebab tingkah laku orang lain. Setiap orang memiliki dorongan untuk memberi pendapat tentang penyebab tingkah laku orang lain. Pendapat-pendapat mereka tsb dinamakan ”naive psychology”  A. Jones and Davis’s theory of correspondent inference TEORI- Terdapat tiga hal yang perlu diperhatikan dari perilaku yang akan kita nilai, yakni bahwa TEORI perilaku itu: 1. Dipilih secara bebas ATRIBUSI 2. Noncommon effects, distinctive 3. Rendah dalam social desirability Kita memiliki kecenderungan untuk menyimpulkan bahwa perilaku orang lain mencerminkan sifat yang internal dan stabil (menetap), ketika perilaku tersebut: - Dilakukan secara bebas (Mis: seorang pria ingin memiliki pacar) - Distinctive (memiliki efek yg tidak umum) (Mis: pria itu ingin kaya tapi tidak memiliki pekerjaan atau malas) - Social desirability-nya rendah, atau: ”tidak populer” (Mis: ia berpacaran dengan seorang wanita kaya yg jauh lebih tua) Apa yang kira-kira bakal anda tentang pria itu? B. Causal attribution theory (Kelley, 1972; 1980).  Apakah sebab-sebab tingkah laku orang lain itu bersifat internal atau eksternal?  Menurut Kelley, dalam upaya memahami tingkah laku orang lain sebagai eksternal atau internal, kita biasanya memperhatikan hubungan 3 hal berikut: Terdapat tiga faktor yang memengaruhi kita untuk mengatribusikan suatu perilaku pada penyebab internal atau eksternal: Consensus: the extent to which other people react to a given stimulus or event in the same manner as the person we are considering Consistency: the extent to which the person in question reacts to stimulus or event in the same way on other occasions Distinctiveness: the extent to which this person reacts in the same manner to other, different stimuli or event  Kelley’s Theory of Attribution  MISATTRIBUTION  Kesalahan/kekeliruan dalam menilai motif atau tujuan tingkah laku orang lain  Misal: Keramahan seorang perempuan dinilai oleh seorang laki-laki sebagai tanda cinta atau atensi (GR) Catatan: banyak kasus perkosaan dipicu oleh kesalahan pelaku dalam menilai reaksi korban (keramahan dinilai sbg ajakan untuk melakukan hub seks, atau penolakan dinilai sebagai reaksi pura-pura)   Kecenderungan individu untuk mengecilkan arti pengaruh situasional (eksternal) dan melebih-lebihkan THE pengaruh disposisional FUNDAMENTAL  Misal: ATTRIBUTION - “Dia tidak menjemput saya karena ERROR memang sudah tidak peduli lagi terhadap perasaan saya” - Dia IPK-nya jelek karena memang pada dasarnya IQ dia jongkok Contoh: “IPK si Putra cuma 1,50. Itu karena IQ dia jongkok!  Error seperti itu bisa juga dalam kaitannya dengan penilaian positif. Misal: - Ani sangat perhatian kepada Adi, karena kepada siapa pun Ani selalu penuh perhatian Berarti mengabaikan (mengecilkan) kemungkinan bahwa Adi juga berkeinginan menarik perhatian Ani)  Gejala fundamental error itu dapat terjadi dalam ruang sidang di pengadilan. Misal kasus O.J. Simpson: - Orang yang percaya bahwa pembunuhan terhadap istrinya dilakukan dengan sengaja (disposisional), menuntut hukuman yang sangat berat. Catatan: - Orang yang percaya bahwa pembunuhan dilakukan secara tidak sengaja (situasional) menuntut hukuman yang lebih ringan. - Orang yang percaya bahwa Simpson bukan pelaku, menuntut pembebasan. Namun, pelaku kejahatan biasanya akan melebih-lebihkan faktor situasional, misalnya beralasan: itu bukan salah saya; saya adalah korban …”.  Error ini pun dapat mempengaruhi sikap kita terhadap sesuatu.  Misal: Anda percaya bahwa orang-orang miskin disebabkan karena mereka malas. Jika begitu, bagaimana sikap anda terhadap orang miskin? Positif atau negatif? Bagaimana jika anda percaya bahwa penyebab orang miskin bukan karena mereka malas, tetapi karena mereka adalah korban dari kebijakan ekonomi dan politik yang korup dan tidak menguntungkan masyarakat kelas bawah (miskin)?   An actor – observer differences Kita mempersepsi orang lain secara berbeda dibandingkan saat kita mempersepsi diri kita sendiri. Pada saat menilai diri sendiri, lingkungan KENAPA TERJADI seolah-oleh memiliki kontrol (pegaruh) kuat terhadap kita. FUNDAMENTAL Namun, ketika kita menilai orang lain, kita tidak (mau) melihat ERROR? kontrol lingkungan di sekitar orang lain itu Misalnya gejala the camera perspective bias  Menurut anda, kenapa orang ini berteriak  Lihat foto hal 93 sambilmengepalkan tangan dan seperti berteriak? Kita mungkin menilai dia maniak, karena tidak melihat orang-orang di belakang dia. Padahal dia sedang memberi semangat dan motivasi keada audience  Contoh lain: Seorang politisi diwawancarai oleh wartawan. Wartawan memuat sebagian dari hasil wawancara itu di media massa. Yang dimuat adalah pernyataan yang “kontroversial”. Pembaca/penonton beranggapan bahwa pernyataan itu merupakan ciri khas dari politisi itu (dispositional). Penilaian pembaca/penonton itu mungkin mengabaikan konteks pernyataan dan/atau framing wartawan  Apakah kecenderungan bias ini bersifat universal atau cultural?  Contoh: ada dua kasus pembunuhan di AS. Kasus pertama dilakukan oleh pegawai pos warga kulit putih. Kasus kedua dilalakukan oleh mahasiswa pasca sarjana keturunan Cina. Koran New York Times menulis bahwa itu faktor disposisional. Koran berbahasa Cina menyebutnya faktor situasional SOCIAL PERCEPTION SEORANG A KEKASIH SEDANG BIRD BERCENGKRAMA DENGAN IN THE DENGAN PASANGANGANNYA THE LAND DI SEBUAH KANTIN UNIVERSITAS  Definisi Persepsi Sosial  Proses psikologis dan aktif yang bekerja dalam diri kita ketika kita berusaha memahami orang lain  There is more to perception than meet the eye  Demikian juga dengan persepsi sosial  Misal O.J. Simpson dipersepsi oleh orang kulit putih dan kulit hitam  Wasit sepat bola dipersepsi oleh pendukung kesebelasan A dan kesebelasan B Bagaimana proses terjadinya persepsi sosial? Jadi, proses terjadinya persepsi sosial adalah sbb: PEMAHAMAN PENGAMAT TG TINGKAH LAKU ORANG LAIN STIMULUS SOSIAL PENGAMAT (ORANG LAIN): (PERCEIVER) MENGOLAH -VERBAL STIMULUS ITU MELALUI -NON VERBAL PRECOGNITION-NYA Precognition consists of:  Beliefs  Attitudes  Values  Social-identity/partisanship Misal: 1. Menjelang Pilpres, ada debat Capres A melawan Capres B. Menurut anda, siapa pemenangnya? 2. Anda perokok. Bagaimana persepsi anda terhadap label peringatan bahaya merokok di bungkus rokok? Berpengaruhkah? There is curious power to partisanship. Consider American politics:  · When a Democrat is President, Democrats say Presidents can’t do anything about high gas prices. Republicans say the same when a Republican is President. But when the President is from the opposing party, both believe Presidents can affect gas prices (Vedantam, 2012).  · Forty-eight percent of political liberals believed most Americans favored same- sex marriage, but only 16% of conservatives thought this was the majority opinion (Gallup, 2013).  · The taller candidate has won the U.S. Presidential election 58% of the time, and Presidents are taller than the average man (Murray & Schmitz, 2011; Stulp et al., 2013). The average male company CEO is 3 inches taller than the average man. We perceive those who look like leaders to be leaders, even if they are not.  The point is: There is an objective reality out there, but we view it through spectacles of our beliefs, attitudes, and values (Myers, 2007) TERIMA KASIH What is your attitude towards each one of them? Is it positive? Negative? Your attitude towards them might influence your behavior (e.g., following their social media).  Beliefs or feelings related to a person or an event (Eagly & Chalken, 2005 in Myers & Twenge, 2022). People’s evaluation of various aspects of their social world (in Sutton & Douglas, 2020). Evaluation of people, objects, ideas (in Aronson, et.al., 2019). The ABCs of Attitudes The ABCs of Attitudes The ABCs of Attitudes   Genetics plays a role in shaping our attitude. (e.g., political attitudes and attitude towards organized religion) Study on twins; identical twins share more attitudes than fraternal twins even when they grow up in different homes. However, genetic is not a sole cause and might play a little role since further study needed.  Stimulus yang memunculkan reaksi (baik positif atau negatif) diikuti oleh stimulus lain yang netral secara berulang, sehingga stimulus netral tersebut memunculkan reaksi positif. Unconditioned Stimulus: Stimulus yang memicu respon positif atau negatif secara alami (unconditioned). Conditioned Stimulus: Stimulus yang memicu respon tertentu melalui asosiasi/learning. How Classical Conditioning Shapes Our Attitude? Children Parents Poor People Don’t understand why Show dislike toward their parents look upset (Neutral Stimulus) poor people by hence the children feel looking upset discomfort Children Poor People Feel discomfort How Classical Conditioning Shapes Our Attitude Subliminal Conditioning: Classical conditioning dimana individu tidak menyadari ada rangsangan stimulus yang terlibat. Dapat terjadi ketika stimulus yang masuk terlalu cepat untuk diproses secara sadar. ⚬ Mere exposure effect: Kecenderungan individu untuk memilih dan/atau menyukai sesuatu yang familiar. ⚬ Illustion of truth: Exposure terus menerus akan suatu statement akan diyakini sebagai kenyataan. (Repeated information is often perceived as more truthful than new information). Form of learning where a behavior followed by positive response is more likely to be repeated, and negative response is more likely to be decreased. We might ‘adjust’ our attitude when we are in new environment through social networks. Social Networks: Sets of individuals with whom we interact on a regular basis (Eaton, Majka & Visser, 2008 in Branscome & Baron). “Entering new social networks can be quite influential—particularly when they introduce us to new strong arguments not previously encountered (Levitan & Visser, 2008). The desire to fit in with others and be rewarded for holding similar attitudes can be a powerful motivator of attitude formation and change.” Form of learning where individuals acquire attitudes and behaviors by observing others. Social Comparison Reference Group The process through which Groups of people with we compare ourselves to whom we identify and others to determine whose opinions we whether our view of social value. reality is, or is not, correct. Remember Bandura’s theory! Attitudes are dynamic, they can change depends on what affects them.   Attitude is an evaluation of an object (can be person, or event). ABCs of attitude can be guides to understand how someone makes the evaluation about the object (how they feel, what they know/understand, what their behavior or tendency of their behavior). Attitudes might affect behavior but very complex and contextual! (some people may have positive/negative attitude toward an object but don’t show it in their behavior). Why attitude and behavior differs? Social-influence (e.g., we will say what we think others want to hear). Other influences Example: Sikap seseorang terhadap agama tidak bisa dijadikan prediksi akurat seseorang akan perilaku beribadah di masjid. Karena ibadah di masjid dipengaruhi oleh berbagai faktor lain seperti cuaca, siapa imamnya, dsb. Sikap seseorang terhadap matkul statistika tidak bisa dijadikan prediksi akurat seseorang untuk membolos kelas statistika. Karena membolos kelas statistika bisa dipengaruhi oleh faktor lain seperti dosen, cuaca, jatah bolos yang dimiliki, dsb. Hence, the smaller the external influences, the more likely our attitude aligns with the behavior.  Attitudes will predict spontaneous behaviors only when they are highly accessible to people (Fazio, 2007; Petty & Krosnick, 2014). Attitude accessibility: The strength of association between an attitude object and a person’s evaluation of that object, measured by how quickly they can react/report on how they feel about the object. The more direct experience people have with an attitude object, the more accessible their attitude will be, and the more accessible it is, the more likely their spontaneous behavior will be consistent with that attitude (Descheemaeker et al., 2016; Glasman & Albarracín, 2006)  1975 1985 2011 Theory of Reasoned Theory of Planned Reason-Action Action (TRA) Behavior (TPB) Approach  → Role: A set of norms that defines how people in a given social position ought to behave. “When we act our role, we slightly change our former selves into being more like the role (Myers & Twenge, 2022).” Example: Standford Prison Experiment by Philip Zimbardo People tend to adjust their messages to what we think the others will want to hear and then come to believe our own words.  Our action, doing it repeatedly, can affect both our evil and moral thinking. Further explanation: ⚬ Evil sometimes results from gradually escalating commitments. (First, you will feel guilty but as you repeat the action, you feel ‘fine’.) ⚬ Moral action especially when it is not forced, affects moral thinking.  We see making a good impression as a way to gain social & material rewards, to feel better about ourselves, even to become more secure in our social identities (Leary, 1994, 2010, 2012). We express attitudes that match our actions. To appear consistent to others, we may automatically pretend we hold attitudes consistent with our behaviors (Leary, et.al., 2015; Tyler, 2012).  Cognitive Dissonance: Tension that arises when one is simultaneously aware of two inconsistent cognitions. To minimize cognitive dissonance: ⚬ Selective exposure: The tendency to seek information and media that agree with one’s views and to avoid dissonant information. ⚬ Insufficient justification: Reduction of dissonance by internally justifying one’s behavior when external justification is “insufficient”. Dissonance after Decision (Post-Decision Dissonance) Inner conflict or discomfort that someone feels after making a decision (Alcock & Sadava, 2014). The dissonance happens because we think other option might be better and we might regret not choosing it instead.  Self-perception theory: When we are unsure of our attitudes, we infer them much as would someone observing us. ⚬ Expressions and Attitude ⚬ Overjustification and Intrinsic Motivations  KLD SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY KTPS MBKM 2024 9 September 2024 CONTENTS When you finish studying this chapter, you should be able to do the following: Describe and exemplify the process of triadic reciprocal causality. Distinguish between enactive and vicarious learning and between learning and performance. Explain the role of self-regulation in social cognitive theory. Explain the various factors that affect observational learning and performance. Define self-efficacy and explain its causes and effects in learning settings.. 2 Nonton dulu https://youtu.be/XHIhkM1cAv4 3  INTRODUCTION Bandura was born in Alberta, Canada, in 1925. He received his doctorate in clinical psychology from the University of Iowa. After arriving at Stanford University in the 1950s, Bandura began a research program exploring the influences on social behavior. 4 “ Individuals are neither powerless objects controlled by environmental forces nor entirely free agents who can do whatever they choose.” —Bandura 5 Bobo doll’s experiment (1961) 6 Bobo doll’s experiment (1961) 7 Bobo doll’s experiment (1961) 1 3 how specific behaviors children may be more can be learned through inclined to respond to observation and imitation frustration with aggression in the future 2 4 the violent behavior of the observational learning can occur in adult models toward the the absence of reinforcements dolls led children to believe (reward-punishment) to the that such actions were observers/models in the acquisition acceptable of new behavior 8  Social Learning Theory Basic foundations Children learn to exhibit aggressive behaviors because they observe others acting aggressively and can see how these behaviors are reinforced over time Emphasize the importance of the social context and posit that individuals can learn by observing others’ actions and whether these individuals are positively or negatively reinforced when exhibiting aggressive behaviors Young children imitate adults’ aggressive actions that they witness in contrived social settings. Thus, aggressive behavior is thought to occur because it has been either modeled or reinforced over time.  Individuals learn behaviors by observing those around them, (sometimes) without having to imitate what was observed; emphasize the cognitive aspects involved in learning from the social environment. 11  —General Principles of Social Cognitive Theory People can learn by observing others’ behaviors and the consequences that result Learning can occur without a change in behavior Cognition plays important roles in learning People can have considerable control over their actions and environments 12  TABLE OF CONTENTS TRC Motivation Triadic Reciprocal Causality 01 03 Goal, Value, Expectations: (Outcome expectations & Self-efficacy) Modelling Self-regulation vicarious Learning 02 04 Self agency 13  01 TRC Triadic Reciprocal Causality 14 WHAT IS TRC? Explains human behavior in terms of a three-way, dynamic, reciprocal model in which personal factors (P), environmental influences (E), and behavior (B) continually interact to influence human behavior (Bandura, 1986) 15 WHAT IS TRC? The model does not imply that the directions of influence are always the same. At any given time, one factor may predominate. When environmental influences are weak, personal factors predominate. For instance, students allowed to write a report on a book of their choosing will select one they enjoy. However, a person caught in a burning house is apt to evacuate quickly; the environment dictates the behavior. 16 TRC 17  WHAT IS TRC? Person Behavior environment Individual’s particular physical An individual’s General conditions & characteristics (e.g., age, gender, observable actions immediate stimuli physical attractiveness) and reactions (including reinforcement Cognitive processes (e.g., attention, and punishment) in the expectations) outside world Socially and culturally conferred roles and reputations (e.g., king, student, 18 “popular kid,” “geek”) Beliefs, values, etc.  INTERACTION OF THREE FACTORS Students who do not understand a Eventually the teacher point raise their hands to ask a gives students work to question accomplish PB EPB 01 02 03 04 EP BE As a teacher presents a lesson to the The teacher class, students think about what the reviews the point teacher is saying 19 INTERACTION OF THREE FACTORS They decide they like the task, ask the teacher if they can continue to work on it, and are allowed to do so PBE 07 06 BP As students work on the task, they believe they are performing it well 20  EXERCISE 1 Answer the following questions Person → behavior (1- 25) Research shows that self-efficacy beliefs influence such achievement behaviors as choice of tasks, persistence, effort expenditure, and skill acquisition (Schunk, 1991, 2001; Schunk & Pajares, 2002). behavior → person (26 – 50) As students work on tasks, they note their progress toward their learning goals (e.g., completing assignments, finishing sections of a term paper). Such progress indicators convey to students that they are capable of performing well and enhance their self-efficacy for continued learning. person → environment (51 – 75) Some teachers, for example, judge students with disabilities less capable than students without disabilities and hold lower academic expectations for them, even in content areas where students with learning disabilities are performing adequately (Bryan & Bryan, 1983). 21  EXERCISE 1 Answer the following questions Environment → person (76 – 100) In turn, teacher feedback can affect self-efficacy. When a teacher tells a student, “I know you can do this,” the student likely will feel more confident about succeeding. Environment → behavior (101 – 125) Consider a typical instructional sequence in which the teacher presents information and asks students to direct their attention to the board. Environmental influence on behavior occurs when students look at the board without much conscious deliberation Behavior → environment (126 – 148) Students’ behaviors often alter the instructional environment. If the teacher asks questions and students give the wrong answers, the teacher may reteach some points rather than continue the lesson. 22 02 MODELLING vicarious Learning 23 Enactive and Vicarious Learning Enactive Vicarious or vicariously by observing Learning occurs either models perform (e.g., live, enactively through actual symbolic, portrayed doing electronically) 24 Enactive Learning Enactive learning involves learning from the consequences of one’s actions. ○ Behaviors that result in successful consequences are retained; those that lead to failures are refined or discarded. ○ Behavioral consequences serve as sources of information and motivation. Vicarious Learning Much human learning occurs vicariously, or without overt performance by the learner, at the time of learning. ○ Common sources of vicarious learning are observing or listening to models who are live (appear in person), symbolic or nonhuman (e.g., televised talking animals, cartoon characters), electronic (e.g., television, computer, videotape, DVD), or in print (e.g., books, magazines) ○ Vicarious sources accelerate learning over what would be possible if people had to perform every behavior for learning to occur. ○ Vicarious sources also save people from personally experiencing negative consequences. modeling Modeling—a critical component in social cognitive theory— refers to behavioral, cognitive, and affective changes deriving from observing one or more models (Rosenthal & Bandura, 1978; Schunk, 1987, 1998; Zimmerman, 1977). Observational Learning Trough Modeling Observational learning through modeling occurs when observers display new patterns of behavior that, prior to exposure to the modeled behaviors, have a zero probability of occurrence even when motivation is high (Bandura, 1969). A key mechanism is the information conveyed by models to observers of ways to produce new behaviors (Rosenthal & Zimmerman, 1978). Observational learning comprises four processes: attention, retention, production, and motivation (Bandura, 1986).  PROCESSES OF OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING Attentional, selectively observe, the actions of a model; influenced by characteristics of the modeled behavior (e.g., complexity), the model (e.g., attractiveness, similarity), and the observer (e.g., cognitive capabilities) Retention, how to transform modeled information into symbolic forms and to organize it into easily remembered structures Production, translating the symbolic representation of the observed behavior into action; how to organize action sequences, to monitor and compare behavioral enactments against the symbolic model, and to correct evident mismatches Motivational, outcomes of action serve as incentive/reward; help to determine whether behaviors are enacted based on the nature of the reinforcement Processes of observational learning Source : Learning theories : an educational perspective / Dale H. Schunk (2012) p. 127 FEATURES OF LEARNING Cognitive skill Motor skill learning learning Cognitive modeling incorporates Motor skill learning involves constructing modeled explanation and a mental model that provides the demonstration with verbalization of conceptual representation of the skill for the model’s thoughts and reasons for response production and serves as the performing given actions standard for correcting responses subsequent to receiving feedback (Meichenbaum, 1977) (Bandura, 1986; McCullagh, 1993; Weiss, Ebbeck, & Wiese-Bjornstal, 1993) 31  EXERCISE 2 Select the correct answer Konsekuensi perilaku berperan 01 sebagai, kecuali: 03 Elemen P (Person) adalah Pembentuk perilaku (pilih beberapa jawaban) Motivasi Perilaku Informasi Ekspektasi Increased by rehearsing Gender 02 information to be learn: Model Recall Retention Nilai 32  03 MOTIVATION Goal, Value, Expectations (Outcome expectations & Self-efficacy) 33 Learning and Performance Social cognitive theory distinguishes between new learning and performance of previously learned behaviors ○ Whether we ever perform what we learn depends on factors such as our motivation, interest, incentives to perform, perceived need, physical state, social pressures, and type of competing activities. ○ Reinforcement, or the belief that it will be forthcoming, affects performance rather than learning Factors affecting observational learning and performance Source : Learning theories : an educational perspective / Dale H. Schunk (2012) p. 134 Self-efficacy Self-efficacy refers to an individual's belief in his or her capacity to execute behaviors necessary to produce specific performance attainments (Bandura, 1977, 1986, 1997). keyakinan individu mengenai kemampuannya untuk mengatur dan menampilkan serangkaian tindakan untuk mencapai tujuan  SELF-EFFICACY An individual’s belief in his/her capabilities to perform a behavior Reflects confidence/positive thinking in one’s ability Leads us to set challenging goals and to persist Better predictors of people’s accomplishments Self-efficacy ≠ outcome expectations Self-efficacy refers to perceptions of one’s capabilities to produce actions; Outcome expectations involve beliefs about the anticipated outcomes of actions How Self-Efficacy Affects Behavior and Cognition Choices of activities People tend to choose tasks and activities at which they believe they can succeed; they tend to avoid those at which they think they’ll fail. Goals People set higher goals for themselves when they have high self- efficacy in a particular domain. Effort and persistence People with a high sense of self-efficacy are more likely to exert effort when they work at a task, and they’re more likely to persist when they encounter obstacles. Learning and achievement people with high self-efficacy tend to learn and achieve more than those with low self-efficacy, even when initial ability levels are the same. Factors in the Development of Self-Efficacy mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion, and physiological and affective states Previous Successes and Failures Current Emotional State Messages from Others Successes and Failures of Others Successes and Failures of the Group as a Whole  EXERCISE 3 Read the essay below and answer the questions Essay Questions Attached Jelaskan hubungan P  B Jelaskan observational learning! Jelaskan learning dan performance, termasuk faktor yang mempengaruhinya? Jelaskan cognitive modelling? Jelaskan motor skill learning? 41 04 SELF REGULATION Agency 42 HUMAN AGENCY Human agency: individuals are proactively engaged in their own development and that they are able to exercise a measure of control over their thoughts, feelings, and actions Three modes of agency: ○ Individual/direct personal, completely independent/have fully control over themselves (actions, thoughts, feelings) and environment in managing their life ○ Proxy, relies on others to secure desired outcomes by influencing others to act on their behalf ○ Collective, work together to advance common interests, to shape their future  HUMAN CAPABILITY 1. symbolizing: extract meaning from environment; construct guides for action; gain knowledge by reflective thought; communicate with others; store information (verbal, imaginal, other symbols) 2. forethought: plan action and anticipate its consequences 3. vicarious: ability to learn through observation/imitation/modeling others’ behaviors & attitude without trial and error 4. self-regulatory: adjust behavior to short-term & long-term goals & meet those goals 5. self-reflective: examine their functioning  to make sense of experiences, self-evaluate, judge capability to accomplish tasks; motivated by the long-term & short-term goals that people set Self-Regulation students’self-generated thoughts and behaviors that are systematically oriented toward the attainment of their learning goals.” (Schunk dan Zimmerman, 2003)  Four core properties of agency: 1. Intentionality, forming of intention; action plan and strategies for realizing them 2. Forethought, setting goals and anticipating future events/their actions 3. Self-reactiveness, construct and regulate the appropriate courses of action; self-management/self-motivation 4. Self-reflectivenes, reflect on their capabilities, the soundness of their thoughts and actions, and the meaning of their pursuits Elements of Self-Regulation Setting standards and goals: set self standards & goals Self-observation: observe oneself in action to be aware of how well they’re doing at present (must know what parts of the performance are working well and what parts need improvement). Self-evaluation: to judge and evaluate own behaviors based on the self standards Self-reaction: self-praise and self-criticism Self-reflection: reflect on and critically examine goals, past successes and failures behaviors, and beliefs about abilities, and make any adjustments to goals, behaviors, and beliefs that seem warranted Exercise 4 Application of SCT. 48 References Dale H. Schunk (2012) Learning theories an educational perspective, sixth edition. Ormrod, Jeanne Ellis (2016), Human Learning, 7th edition Social Influence Conformity | Compliance | Obedience Syifa Adilla, M.Psi, M.Sc., Psikolog [email protected]  What is social influence What we Confirmity are going to learn Compliance Obedience References  What is Social Influence? The effects that other people can have on Social Influence our thoughts, feelings, and behavior (Sutton & Douglas, 2020). Conformity Obedience Compliance Social Influence CONFORMITY Let’s Play a Game First! Never Have I Ever Wear uniforms at school. Follow (or try) social media trends/challenges. Change your style to fit the current trends. Pretend that we like ‘something’ that your crush or idol likes. Agreeing with your friends even though deep down you disagree. If you have ever done at least one of those things... it means you have experienced conformity! What is Conformity?  Conformity Changing one’s behavior due to the real or imagined influence of other people (Aarts & Dijksterhuis, 2003; Kiesler & Kiesler, 1969; Sorrentino & Hancock, 2014). Definition Type of social influence in which individuals change their attitudes or behavior to adhere to existing social norms (Branscombe & Baron, 2023) Rules or social norm can be explicit or implicit.  Informational Social Influence Seeing other people’s interpretation as a source of information in ambiguous situations because we believe their reaction is accurate and appropriate. E.g., Sherif’s Autokinetic Effect (1935). Private Acceptance: Genuinely believe what others do or saying is right and conforming to it. Public Compliance: Conforming to other people’s public behavior without necessarily believe what the other people say or do.  When Do We Conform? Ambiguous Situation Crisis When Other People are Experts Similar with ambiguous “The more uncertain we situation, when we are in The more expertise/knowledge a are, the more we will rely crisis, we will see how others person has, the more valuable on others.” respond and do likewise. they will be as a guide in an ambiguous situation. Normative Social Influence Following social norms: implicit (sometimes, explicit) rules for acceptable behaviors, values, and beliefs. Normative social influence: Going along with what others do to be liked and accepted by them, which leads to conformity with the group’s beliefs and behavior but not always private acceptance of them. Examples: Smoking Social media (such as TikTok) trends Consequences of resisting normative social influence Being rejected/outgroup Ridiculed Disliked Punished When people conform to normative social influence? It depends on... How important the group or the other person is to us. When one has no allies in the group: Normative social influence is most powerfully felt when everyone in the group says/believes the same thing. Collectives culture: People in collectivistic cultures value normative social influence because it promotes harmony & supportive relationship in the group. Minority Influence Minority groups can influence the behavior or beliefs of the majority. Examples: PRIDE (LGBTQ+ Rights movement), Black Lives Matter Consistency among and other minority groups must agree with one another. Majority influences others through normative social influence (public compliances), minorities influence through informational social influence (private acceptance). Factors Affecting Conformity Cohesiveness: the extent to which we are attracted to particular social group and want to belong to it (Turner, 1991). The more we like them & want to belong in the same group with them, the more we tend to conform. Group size: the more people in the group, the more we tend to conform. Status within the group: the higher someone’s status in the group, the less they need to conform. Factors Affecting Conformity Unanimity: Consensus Perceived interdependence: Perceive that their fate depends on others. Public response: People conform more when they must respond publicly than privately. Prior commitment: Making a public commitment makes people hesitant to back down. Do you think conformity is good? Or bad? Do you think through conformity, good people can turn bad?  Philip Zimbardo’s Infamous ‘Standford Prison Experiment’ (1971) “It is the situations in which people find themselves - not their personal traits - that largely determine their behavior. People do differ in many ways; but place them in powerful situation and such differences tend to disappear (Branscombe & Baron, 2023).” However, in some cases... People refuse to conform. Why?  Reasons for Nonconformity ASSERTING REACTANCE POWER UNIQUENESS Reasons for Nonconfirmity Reactance A motive to protect or restore one’s sense of freedom. Reactance arises when someone threatens our freedom of action. Boomerang effect: e.g., anti-smoking campaign in teenagers might not be effective, instead it increases smoking behavior possibly due to reactance. Other examples: ⚬ Eating indomie when your parents tell you not to. ⚬ Finding people that your parents disapprove more attractive to date. Reasons for Nonconfirmity Power People who possessed power, or were merely primed to think about it, were in fact less likely to show conformity to the actions or judgements of others than people lower in power (Gaalinsky et.al, 2008). People in power: They make the rules and they can shape situations rather than be molded by them. Reasons for Nonconfirmity Asserting One’s Uniqueness To some extent, we are aware that we are unique and want to assert that individuality (uniqueness). More prevalent in the cultures that appreciate individuality. Individuals who have highest ‘need to be unique’ tend to conform the least. Minorities are more aware of their ‘uniqueness’ (differences) among majorities. Okay, now.. HOW conformity is being done?  Conformity Tactics Social Norms: Propaganda Injuctive and Descriptive Norms Injuctive Norms: What people believe Systemic attempt in manipulating they should (or not) do in a given mass attitudes and behaviors, often situation. through misleading or emotionally Descriptive Norms: What people charged information. actually do in one situation. Injuctive norms are more powerful in producing desirable behavior especially when the sense of approval/disapproval comes from people who are close to them (e.g., family, close friends). Social Influence COMPLIANCE  Compliance Form of social influence involving direct requests from one person to another (Branscombe & Baron, 2023). Definition Conformity that involves publicly acting in accord with an implied or explicit request while privately disagreeing (Myers & Twenge, 2022). 6 Principles of Compliance Friendship/Liking Commitment/Consistency Reciprocity Scarcity Social Validation Authority Friendship/Liking We are more willing to comply with requests from friends or from people we like, than with requests from strangers or people we don’t like. Commitment/Consistency Complying with requests for behaviors that are consistent with the action we committed to. Foot-in-the-door technique: Gaining compliance from small request that is hard to refuse, then follow with a larger request. E.g., giving free samples to customers, you are more willing to buy. The lowball technique: Attractive initial offer to commit a potential customer then offer less favorable (e.g., increase the price of the product of service). The lure effect: Gaining compliance by asking individuals to do something they find appealing then once agreed, are asked to do something they dislike. Reciprocity Being obligated to ‘pay back’ for what others have done to us. Door in the face technique That’s-not-all technique A technique for gaining compliance in which requesters offer additional benefits to target people before they have decided whether to comply with or reject specific requests Scarcity Complying with request that focuses on scarcity. Deadline Technique A technique for increasing compliance in which targeted people are told that they have only limited time to take advantage of some offer or to obtain some item. Social Validation Complying with requests for actions which others also do or think the same way. We want to be correct, so we want to think and act like others. Authority Complying with requests from those who hold authorities.. Social Influence OBEDIENCE Defining ‘Obedience’ A form of social influence in which one person simply orders one or more others to perform some action (Branscombe & Baron, 2023). Change in one’s behavior due to the direct influence of an authority figure (Aronson, et.al., 2019). Type of compliance involving acting in accord with a direct order or command (Myers & Twenge, 2022). What does Milgram’s experiment tell us? Social pressure is really powerful that it will overcome the weaker one (our attitude fail the determine our behavior!). Saying what we would do in a hypothetical situation is easier than doing it in real situation. Situations filled with social forces can induce ordinary people to capitulate to cruelty. Evil evolves from a squence of small evil. The Role of Normative Social Influence in Obedience If someone really wants us to do something, it can be difficult to say no. This is particularly true when the person is in a position of authority. If we don’t obey, we might disappoint or maybe even anger the authority. The Role of Informational Social Influence in Obedience We use other people to help define the situation that we are unsure or confused about what to do. Informational social influence is especially powerful when the situation is ambiguous, crisis, and when other people in the situation have some expertise (and all of them happened during Milgram’s experiment!). Why Destructive Obedience Occurs? Thank You! PERSUASION Konsep dan Teori Psikologi Sosial Selasa, 8 Oktober 2024 Aulia Hanafitri, M.Psi., Psikolog  PERSUASION The process by which a message induces change in beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors (Myers, 2016). Persuasion’s power enables us to promote health or to sell addiction, to advance peace or stir up hate, to enlighten or deceive. Aulia Hanafitri, M.Psi., Psikolog Persuasion is neither inherently good nor bad. It is a message’s purpose and content that elicit judgments of good or bad. The bad we call “propaganda” The good we call “education” Education is more factually based and less coercive than propaganda. Yet generally we call it “education” when we believe it, “propaganda” when we don’t (Lumsden & others, 1980). Aulia Hanafitri, M.Psi., Psikolog Persuasion Dalam banyak aspek kehidupan kita sering menyaksikan persuasi, atau orang melakukan persuasi, mulai dalam bentuk persuasi “positif” (dalam dunia pendidikan, kebijakan pemerintah untuk kesejahteraan masyarakat, gerakan LSM untuk Lingkungan Hidup), “netral” (iklan suatu produk) sampai propaganda “negatif” (berita hoaks atau black campaign dalam politik). WHAT PATHS WHAT ARE THE HOW CAN LEAD TO ELEMENTS OF PERSUASION BE PERSUASION? PERSUASION? RESISTED? Aulia Hanafitri, M.Psi., Psikolog  The Central Route WHAT PATHS LEAD TO PERSUASION? The Peripheral Route Different Paths for Different Purposes Aulia Hanafitri, M.Psi., Psikolog PATHS LEAD TO PERSUASION Aulia Hanafitri, M.Psi., Psikolog Aulia Hanafitri, M.Psi., Psikolog The Central Route Audience bersifat kritis dan analitis Fokus pada argumen-argumen komunikator yang kuat, terurai secara sistematis, bijaksana, tidak dangkal, juga menarik. Oleh karena itu, proses persuasi cenderung lebih tahan lama dan mempengaruhi perilaku Argumen yang disampaikan harus sistematis dan detail Aulia Hanafitri, M.Psi., Psikolog The Peripheral Route Suatu cara persuasi yang digunakan pada saat menghadapi audiens yang tidak kritis atau analitis Audience yang hanya tertarik pada “incidental cues” yang melekat pada komunikator, sehingga mudah bagi audiens untuk menyukai pesan yang disampaikan Komunikator tidak melakukan usaha/argumen yang kuat untuk meyakinkan audiens Proses persuasi dapat terjadi dalam waktu yang cepat, namun bersifat sementara Aulia Hanafitri, M.Psi., Psikolog TUGAS: Berikan contoh bagaimana persuasi menggunakan peripheral dan central route dalam konteks: kehidupan sehari-hari di kampus iklan suatu produk politik lingkungan hidup  Who Says? The Communicator What Is Said? The Message THE ELEMENTS OF Content PERSUASION How Is It Said? The Channel of Communication To Whom Is It Said? The Audience Aulia Hanafitri, M.Psi., Psikolog THE COMMUNICATOR: CREDIBILITY Seorang komunikator dianggap kredibel jika Terlihat ahli di bidang yang ia sampaikan (perceived expertise) Dirasa dapat dipercaya (perceived trustworthiness). Aulia Hanafitri, M.Psi., Psikolog CREDIBILITY PERCEIVED EXPERTISE: Cara yang dapat digunakan agar seseorang terlihat memiliki keahlian tertentu adalah dengan mengatakan hal-hal yang disetujui oleh audiens dan membuat komunikator tampak cerdas. Hal tersebut menimbulkan anggapan bahwa komunikator memiliki pengetahuan yang luas serta percaya diri. SPEAKING STYLE : speak confidently and fluently PERCEIVED TRUSTWORTHINESS : Gaya bicara komunikator yang menimbulkan kepercayaan pada audiens Aulia Hanafitri, M.Psi., Psikolog Aulia Hanafitri, M.Psi., Psikolog Sumber yang kredibel memang lebih persuasif dibandingkan sumber yang tidak kredibel, namun tingkat keterlibatan penerima memainkan peranan penting. Tertundanya proses persuasi Awalnya audiens cenderung mengabaikan pesan yang disampaikan komunikator Bahkan mereka tidak mengingat mengapa mereka mengabaikan pesan tersebut Aulia Hanafitri, M.Psi., Psikolog THE COMMUNICATOR: ATTRACTIVENESS & LIKING Komunikator memiliki kualitas dan menarik bagi audiens Seorang komunikator yang menarik (seringkali seseorang yang mirip dengan penonton) merupakan seorang yang paling meyakinkan Physical attractiveness (Daya Tarik Fisik) Similarity also makes for attractiveness (Kesamaan) Aulia Hanafitri, M.Psi., Psikolog Aulia Hanafitri, M.Psi., Psikolog Six Persuasion Principles 01 Authority orang cenderung patuh atau menghormati komunikator yang kredibel 02 Liking orang lebih memberikan respon persetujuan pada komunikator yang mereka sukai 03 Social proof orang akan mengikuti apa yang dikatakan PERSUASION komunikator jika komunikator dianggap terpercaya (dalam berpikir dan bertindak) oleh banyak orang Aulia Hanafitri, M.Psi., Psikolog Six Persuasion Principles 04 Reciprocity orang merasa bahwa mereka akan memberikan sesuatu yang sesuai dengan apa yang telah mereka terima, dalam hal ini adanya timbal balik antara komunikator dan audiens 05 Consistency orang cenderung menghormati adanya komitmen 06 Scarcity orang akan menghargai sesuatu yang sifatnya PERSUASION langka atau original Aulia Hanafitri, M.Psi., Psikolog THE MESSAGE CONTENT: REASON VS EMOTION Well-educated or analytical people are responsive to rational appeals (Cacioppo & others, 1983, 1996; Hovland & others, 1949). Thoughtful, involved audiences often travel the central route; they are more responsive to reasoned arguments. Uninterested audiences more often travel the peripheral route; they are more affected by their liking of the communicator (Chaiken, 1980; Petty & others, 1981). Aulia Hanafitri, M.Psi., Psikolog THE MESSAGE CONTENT: REASON VS EMOTION THE EFFECT OF GOOD FEELINGS : Messages also become more persuasive through association with good feelings THE EFFECT OF AROUSING FEAR : Messages can also be effective by evoking negative emotions Aulia Hanafitri, M.Psi., Psikolog THE MESSAGE CONTENT: LENGTH AND DISCREPANCY Isi pesan jangan terlalu ekstrim berbeda dengan apa yang diketahui atau diyakini audience, apalagi jika menyangkut issue-issue penting dan pribadi Ketidaksepakatan menimbulkan ketidaknyamanan, dan ketidaknyamanan mendorong orang untuk mengubah pendapat mereka. Orang lebih terbuka terhadap kesimpulan dalam jangkauan akseptabilitas mereka. Jadi, adanya perbedan atau ketidaksetujuan yang lebih besar dapat memperkecil adanya perubahan. Aulia Hanafitri, M.Psi., Psikolog THE MESSAGE CONTENT: MESSAGE CONTEXT foot-in-the-door phenomenon : Kecenderungan orang yang pertama kali menyetujui permintaan kecil untuk kemudian menuruti permintaan yang lebih besar lowball technique : Taktik untuk membuat orang menyetujui sesuatu. Orang yang menyetujui permintaan awal sering kali akan tetap menuruti permintaan saat peminta menaikkan taruhannya. Orang yang hanya menerima permintaan yang mahal cenderung tidak menurutinya. door-in-the-face technique : Strategi untuk mendapatkan konsesi. Setelah seseorang pertama kali menolak permintaan besar (door-in-the-face), peminta yang sama menawar balik dengan permintaan yang lebih masuk akal. Aulia Hanafitri, M.Psi., Psikolog THE MESSAGE CONTENT: ONE-SIDED VS TWO-SIDED APPEALS Jika pesan yang disampaikan mengandung dua sisi yang berbeda, maka akan cenderung disetujui oleh audiens. Jika audiens Anda akan menghadapi pandangan yang berlawanan, tawarkan daya tarik dua sisi. Aulia Hanafitri, M.Psi., Psikolog THE MESSAGE CONTENT: PRIMACY VS RECENCY Aulia Hanafitri, M.Psi., Psikolog How Is It Said? : The Channel of Communication Active Experience Or Passive Reception Kemampuan komunikator: mudah mendapat perhatian audiens, mudah dimengerti, meyakinkan, mudah diingat, serta menyampaikan pesan secara menarik pada audiens. Pesan secara lisan belum tentu lebih persuasif dari pada pesan tulisan Pesan yang bersifat pengulangan lebih mudah untuk menggugah keyakinan audiens Aulia Hanafitri, M.Psi., Psikolog How Is It Said? : The Channel of Communication Personal vs Media Influence Studi persuasi menunjukkan bahwa pengaruh utama pada kita bukanlah media tapi kontak komunikator dengan orang/audiens. Meski pengaruh tatap muka biasanya lebih besar dari pengaruh media, kita seharusnya tidak meremehkan kekuatan media. Ketika suatu pesan sulit untuk dimengerti lebih baik disampaikan dalam bentuk tulisan agar pesan tersebut dapat dicerna audience selama yang ia perlukan. (SHELLY CHAIKEN & ALICE EAGLY – 1976 two-step flow of communication Aulia Hanafitri, M.Psi., Psikolog COMPARING MEDIA Source: Data from Chaiken & Eagly (1976). Aulia Hanafitri, M.Psi., Psikolog THE INFLUENCE OF ADULTS ON CHILDREN When you’re trying to get children to eat healthy food, just give it to them, and forget about saying anything else. If you have to say something, say it’s yummy, not healthy. Aulia Hanafitri, M.Psi., Psikolog  Aulia Hanafitri, M.Psi., Psikolog The Audience HOW OLD ARE THEY WHAT ARE THEY THIINKING THE AUDIENCE: HOW OLD ARE THEY? Perbedaan usia seringkali berkorelasi dengan perbedaan sikap. Hal itu berkaitan dengan 2 alasan : Life-cycle Explanation : Sikap seseorang akan berubah seiring bertambahnya usia. Generational Explanation : Sikap tidak berubah; Orang tua sebagian besar berpegang pada sikap yang mereka adopsi saat mereka masih muda. Karena sikap ini berbeda dari yang diadopsi oleh kaum muda saat ini, kesenjangan generasi berkembang. Aulia Hanafitri, M.Psi., Psikolog THE AUDIENCE: WHAT ARE THEY THINKING Forewarned Is Forearmed—if You Care Enough To Counterargue Distraction Disarms Counterarguing Uninvolved Audiences Use Peripheral Cues Aulia Hanafitri, M.Psi., Psikolog CARA MENSTIMULASI PIKIRAN Menggunakan pertanyaan retoris Menghadirkan beberapa pembicara (misalnya, masing-masing memiliki tiga pembicara memberikan satu argumen; alih-alih satu pembicara memberi tiga) Membuat orang merasa bertanggung jawab untuk mengevaluasi atau menyampaikan pesan Mengulangi pesan Membuat perhatian orang tidak terganggu Aulia Hanafitri, M.Psi., Psikolog How Can Persuasion Be Resisted? Strengthening Personal Commitment Real-Life Applications: Inoculation Programs Implications of Attitude Inoculation Aulia Hanafitri, M.Psi., Psikolog REFERENCE Myers, D. G., & Twenge, J.M.(2022). Social Psychology, 14th ed. United States of America: McGraw-Hill Education Aulia Hanafitri, M.Psi., Psikolog Aulia Hanafitri, M.Psi., Psikolog Communication Language & Technology KTPS, OKT 2024 The content mapping in the Social Psychology Handbook Branscom Aronson, Sutton, be, 2023 2019 2020 Social Social Communication Perception Non-verbal Perception Non-verbal Language Communication communication Non-verbal (p.85 – 91) (p.89 – 101) communication Communication & Technology (Ch.5) Communication & Related Topics https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tPk1h2VZ2DI Mengapa komunikasi penting dalam kehidupan manusia?  Communication & Related Topics Self Social we express our Influence emotions, our thoughts, Persuasion, Group our intentions and Influence our identities Other Social discipline Thinking linguistics, sociolinguistics, Share our stereotypes, sociology, cognitive attitude, prejudice psychology, literature and other humanities subjects, communication science  Topics in this chapter Language & What language is and the rules in everyday communication its Rules Language, How communication is shaped by our culture and how Culture & the language we speak can influence what we think cognition Language, personality, How our communication with others reveals important identity & aspects of ourselves, our personalities and our identities gender Language & How language can be characterized Stereotyping as a ‘tool’ to communicate beliefs and stereotypes.  Topics in this chapter Nonverbal the features of nonverbal communication Communication Communication communication in the digital age and how modern & Technology media shape our social interactions.  01 Language & Its rules Language is simply a set of sounds (phonemes), structured into meaningful components (morphemes), which are then organized into meaningful units of words, sentences and complete statements or remarks Morphological Syntactic Semantic Grammar Rules Rules Rules How to structure How communicators UTTERANCES Collection of morphological, sounds into words should organize words syntactic and semantic rules into sentences that How communicators that govern the production make sense can generate language and comprehension of a that makes sense to language others  How language has evolved? Linguistic Nativism Critics Hypothesis ▪ The human brain contains a ‘hard-wired’ set ▪ There are so many structural departures of rules for organizing language. between languages that the concept of ▪ This innate system enables children to learn universal grammar is unrealistic – languages the rules of language with amazing speed and are just too different efficiency → “ critical learning period” ▪ They argue that language has adapted to the structure of the human brain ▪ The languages we use to talk to each other simply mirror universal features of the way we think to ourselves (Christiansen & Chater, 2008). ▪ Most of the meaning in language is determined by social context. Noam Chomsky How exactly do we understand what people say? Pragmatics Pragmatics goes beyond the literal meaning of words and phrases to understand the intended message based on factors like the social situation, the relationship between the speakers, cultural context, situational context, and the way the words are said. ▪ Use of sarcasm ▪ Use of irony ▪ Use of hyperbole ▪ Etc. How exactly do we understand what people say? For a conversation to be successful, communicators need to be able to determine the actions performed by speech. The All language is performative, in that it allows people to Speech Act perform or achieve actions so that in making statements, we Theory (Austin, 1962) intend something to happen Three characteristics of utterances : 1 Locution: the non-ambiguous or literal meaning of an utterance. In the case of the example ‘I’m here now ’, the locution is that the person is physically present. 2 Illocution: the action performed by the utterance (the intention of the speaker). For example, this may be the apology or the reassurance and reflects the intention of the person making the utterance. 3 Perlocution: the utterance may also have unintended consequences (how it was received by the listener). For example, saying ‘I’m here now’ might make the addressee angry, especially if made in a context where the statement is perceived as boastful or unapologetic.  How exactly do we understand what people say? The context is important. The philosopher H. Paul Grice (1975, 1989) argued that communicators also follow certain cooperative ‘rules’ when they speak to one another. The Theory of People should communicate in ways that are consistent Conversational with the context and topic being discussed – they need Implicature to follow rules that make it work. (Grice, 1975) 4 rules in conversation: 1. Quantity: communicators make their contribution to the conversation as informative as required for the current purpose of the exchange but do not make their contributions more informative than required. 2. Quality: communicators generally attempt to make their contributions true, do not say things they know to be false, and do not say things for which they lack adequate evidence. 3. Relation: communicators aim to only say things that are relevant. 4. Manner: communicators aim to be clear and straightforward and avoid ambiguity. How exactly do we understand what people say?  How exactly do we understand what people say? Critics Communication is Overemphasizing the cooperative fundamentally nature of communication. cooperative. The Sometimes, people really have no evolutionary perspectives interest in understanding claim that our each other, and make verbal communicative abilities have statements to express their values benefited the entire species or emotions, or to insult those who disagree. Grice, 1975 Politeness  02 Language, Culture & Cognition  Language & Thought Linguistic Linguistic Determinism Relativity The argument that The argument that language language determines shapes thought. thought people who speak different languages see the world in different ways (Whorf, 1956)  Language & Thought Cultural Frame Switching Because languages are learned in different cultural settings, different knowledge structures are learned and this influences thought  Does language entirely determine thought?  Language as lens-like power These theorists tend to argue that language allows people to communicate more easily about aspects of the world that are important (Krauss & Chiu, 1998). ▪ People live in complex, continually changing environments and in order to survive in such environments, they need to act in a coordinated, cooperative way. ▪ To do this, people need a shared focus, when required, on a discrete subset of goal- relevant objects and events. ▪ Like a ‘lens’, language directs the joint focus of senders’ and recipients’ attention, thought and memory. In this sense, it constrains the reality that people experience (Sutton, 2010).  Saying is believing effect The tendency for a person’s memory of individuals, groups, or events to be influenced by what they have said about them. ▪ How we act in describing persons or groups changes how we feel about them. ▪ If we are induced to describe a group in positive terms, we are later likely to feel more positively toward them. ▪ The saying is believing effect tends to grow over time. Attributing negative traits to a group creates, in memory, an association between the group and those traits. ▪ If you have just made the negative comments, you will remember them clearly and realize that they contribute to your negative feelings about the group.  03 Language, Personality, Identity & Gender  Personality Matched guise technique The technique used to measure attitudes about a speaker based on the speaker’s language use. ▪ Rapid speech rates are associated with high ratings of competence, sociability and trustworthiness, while long, silent pauses are associated with low ratings Language as of competence. ▪ Utterance length is associated with ratings of social marker dominance. ▪ Elevated social pitch is associated with perceptions Features of language use that of deceit and emotional instability, but variability in convey information about a vocal pitch is associated with perceived dynamism and extraversion (Scherer, 1979; for a review, see Krauss & speaker’s characteristics Chiu, 1998). ▪ Men, but not necessarily women, who speak with lower-pitched voices are