PS219 Research Methods - Naturalistic and Observational Research PDF

PS219 RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY NATURALISTIC AND OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH Dr Owen Harney MODULE COORDINATOR Rory Coyne ([email protected]) MY RESEARCH PVSTATEM: SEROLOGICAL TESTING AND TREATMENT FOR P. VIVAX: FROM A CLUSTER-RANDOMISED TRIA...

PS219 RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY NATURALISTIC AND OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH Dr Owen Harney MODULE COORDINATOR Rory Coyne ([email protected]) MY RESEARCH PVSTATEM: SEROLOGICAL TESTING AND TREATMENT FOR P. VIVAX: FROM A CLUSTER-RANDOMISED TRIAL IN ETHIOPIA AND MADAGASCAR TO A MOBILE-TECHNOLOGY SUPPORTED INTERVENTION  PLASMODIUM VIVAX RELAPSES sporozoites in the skin hypnozoites in the liver blood-stage infections 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 time since infection (months)  PvSTATEM TREATMENT FOR MALARIA: FROM TRIAL IN ETHIOPIA AND MADAGASCAR TO A MOBILE- TECHNOLOGY SUPPORTED INTERVENTION (PVSTATEM) AIMS 1. Assess the safety and efficacy of community-wide PvSeroTAT with primaquine 2. Evaluate community acceptability of PvSeroTAT. 3. Develop mobile technologies for efficient implementation which interface with point-of-care diagnostic tests, guide treatment decisions, and interact with health systems.  Explore stakeholder perspectives and identify barriers/facilitators in use PSYCHOLOGY’S of digital tools Create Digital Health Strategy - personalised support to teams ROLE implementing the intervention Guide development of digital health tool  Ethiopia STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT SESSIONS Madagascar HOW CAN AN MHEALTH TOOL HELP? Collective Intelligence sessions held in Ethiopia and Madagascar Health extension workers Nurses Field researchers Data managers Lab scientists Doctors Healthcare administrators Health centre managers PHASES IN THE COLLECTIVE INTELLIGENCE PROCESS MADAGASCAR TRIAL SITE : MANDOTO DISTRICT 10  1. MADAGASCAR TRIAL SITE Mandoto district Vakinankaratra Region (2nd admin level) 09 communes (4th admin level) 76 Fokontany (5th admin level) Population : 234,748 inhabitants* 20 health centres Malaria endemic zone Classified as an unstable malaria transmission area Located in the region with highest proportion of P. vivax 11 *INSTAT. 3rd Population and Housing Census (RGPH-3). 2018 STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT SESSION – ANTANANARIVO, MADAGASCAR MADAGASCAR STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT SESSION – ADAMA, ETHIOPIA ETHIOPIA FINDINGS: USER NEEDS FROM MHEALTH TOOL OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH IN PVSTATEM Participant observation to learn about: workflow, engagement with patients testing and treatment challenges Observation of community health workers, nurses, doctors, laboratory scientists, data scientists  Introduction to observational research Naturalistic vs Participant OBSERVATIONAL observation RESEARCH Reactivity Limits of observational research  OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH Two strategies Primarily descriptive, wide ranging: such studies are used when little is known about the behaviour/organism/context in question (e.g., Goodall’s observations of chimpanzees) Structured, tightly focused: such studies employ specific situations to test hypotheses about the behaviour/organism/context in question (e.g., Tomasello and Warneken’s work on young children’s altruism) JANE GOODALL’S OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH “When Jane Goodall entered the forest of Gombe, the world knew very little about chimpanzees, and even less about their unique genetic kinship to humans. She took an unorthodox approach in her field research, immersing herself in their habitat and their lives to experience their complex society as a neighbour rather than a distant observer and coming to understand them not only as a species, but also as individuals with emotions and long-term bonds. Dr. Jane Goodall’s discovery in 1960 that chimpanzees make and use tools is considered one of the greatest achievements of twentieth-century scholarship. Her field research at Gombe transformed our understanding of chimpanzees and redefined the relationship between humans and animals in ways that continue to emanate around the world.” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TgJMFRkOauM  OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH Three main types of observational research: Naturalistic observation - Identify patterns of behaviour that “naturally” occur in usual environment Participant observation – Join the observed group as a participant Structured observation – Observation that involves obtaining quantitative data (e.g., use of checklists) NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION Observing people’s behaviour in the environment in which it typically occurs This is a type of field research NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION Disguised naturalistic observation (watching without participant awareness; anonymity of participants and public location important) Undisguised naturalistic observation (participants aware, but issue of reactivity) OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH WITH CHILDREN Tomasello and Warneken’s work on young children’s altruistic helping Recording of children’s behavior in various scenarios with the aim of assessing 18- and 24-monthold children’s skills in coordinating their actions with those of an adult partner in cooperative activities. WARNEKEN AND TOMASELLO (2006) Examples of tasks Adults wants to put magazines into a cabinet but is unsuccessful because the doors are closed Adult accidentally drops an item on the floor and attempts unsuccessfully to pick it up Adult attempts to stack items, but the items slips and falls in the attempt A spoon falls through the hole in a box, and the adult unsuccessfully tries to retrieve it WARNEKEN AND TOMASELLO (2006) ALTRUISM IN CHILDREN AND CHIMPS https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z-eU5xZW7cU USES OF NATURALISTIC AND OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH? When learning about different research methods, it is useful to think about how they can be applied: What is the value of this kind of approach? What can we learn from this type of approach that for example we can’t learn from another approach? In what kind of contexts do you think this type of research is useful? What kinds of topics or questions? Make some suggestions for research ideas Discuss with the person/people beside you, and write down some ideas  PS219 RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY NATURALISTIC AND OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH – PART 2 Dr Owen Harney  YOUNG CHILDREN – SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR, GROUP DYNAMICS Channel 4 – secret life of 4, 5, 6 year olds. Psychologists and other specialists observe children interacting https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XGZNFbozAnc https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wJCRzgAPwE4  YOUNG CHILDREN – SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR, GROUP DYNAMICS WHAT MIGHT BE SOME LIMITATIONS TO THIS TYPE OF RESEARCH? What are some potential problems with observational research? Are there limits to what we can learn/conclude? i.e. what can we not learn/conclude through observational research? Discuss with the person/people beside you  PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION In order to investigate certain behaviours, it is necessary to join a particular social group Example – Leon Festinger and colleagues investigation of cult, prophesies of destruction by leader Paid people to infiltrate group, without group’s knowledge Recorded reactions to prophecies not coming true EXAMPLE OF PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION Leon Festinger and colleagues investigated a cult, and the prophesies of destruction by leader Paid people to infiltrate group, without group’s knowledge Recorded reactions to prophecies not coming true  FESTINGER – PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION Disguised participant observation Researchers became members of the group Other group members didn’t know Goal of the observation was to determine the extent of the belief system – the level of commitment to the cause What would happen when end of the world didn’t arrive? How would that impact the belief system? FESTINGER – PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION - OUTCOMES Contributed to Festinger’s Theory of Cognitive Dissonace inconsistency among beliefs or behaviours causes an uncomfortable psychological tension (i.e., cognitive dissonance), leading people to change one of the inconsistent elements to reduce the dissonance or to add consonant elements to restore consonance. FESTINGER – PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION – LIMITATIONS? The researchers may have influenced the other group members with their own stories of belief The upsurge in new members may have been interpreted as a sign of things to come The researchers appeared to have additional knowledge Measurement was challenging given the secrecy PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION – WILKINS (2008) Participant observation of a university-based religious organisation that emphasised how happy it’s members are 12 months attending and participating in group events Found that the group “enforced” happiness by continually talking about happiness, discouraging expression of anything negative, and using happiness as a means of distinguishing themselves from other groups  PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION – WILKINS (2008) Benefits of participant observation in this context: better position to understand the viewpoint and experiences of the people in the group Again: limitation is that the mere presence of an “outsider” masquerading as a group member, and thus interacting with the group. could be influencing behaviour in unknown ways Potential for bias resulting from developing relationships with group members. ROSENHAN (1973) ‘ON BEING SANE IN INSANE PLACES’ ** Fake patients inserted into psychiatric hospital environment Faked hallucinations for admission, received treatment for fake symptoms, eight participants, twelve hospitals Concluded that diagnoses invalid https://www.gwern.net/docs/statistics/ bias/2020-griggs.pdf Later allegations of data fabrication, misrepresentation. Rosenhan was first participant. ROSENHAN ON HIS EXPERIMENT https://www.youtube.com/w atch?v=j6bmZ8cVB4o ROSHENHAN STUDY - CRITICISM Several methodological concerns have been raised about this study: Critics argued that Rosenhan used flawed methodology, ignored relevant data, and reached unsound conclusions. “In reminssion” classifications were rarely used at the time (Ruscio, 2004, Spitzer, 1975) Medical records suggest additional symptoms were faked, but not included in Rosenhan’s reporting of the study REACTIVITY Disguised naturalistic observation (watching without participant awareness; anonymity of participants and public location important) Undisguised naturalistic observation (participants aware, but issue of reactivity) REACTIVITY When people know they are being observed and studied, they may act differently than they normally would Undisguised naturalistic observation (participants aware, but issue of reactivity)  If we want to get an accurate record of “natural” behaviour, then we seek to reduce reactivity Limit direct contact with participants REDUCING Stick to a standard script REACTIVITY Remain unseen Habituation - the progressive diminution of behavioral response probability with repetition of a stimulus  REDUCING REACTIVITY – REMAINING UNSEEN A one-way mirror allows the observer to observe without being seen  REACTIVITY – REMAINING UNSEEN Video recorded sessions can be examined without affecting the participants  CHALLENGE OF OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH Absence of Control In observational studies, you cannot control the independent variables Therefore, it is difficult to attribute causality to specific environmental conditions However, demonstrations of what a person/animal can do in a situation can have important theoretical implications  ABSENCE OF CONTROL Observation: Child A picks up a toy. Shortly afterwards, child B picks up a similar toy Conclusion: Child B imitated Child A Incorrect There is insufficient data on which to make that attribution of causality (e.g. the toy might be simply be an attractive toy)  Informal interviews (asking opinions etc.) DATA FROM OBSERVATIONAL Notes, written observations STUDIES Use of behavioural checklists OBSERVER BIAS/INACCURACY If the experimenter has preconceived ideas about what they expect to see, then their observations may not be reliable To reduce bias/inaccuracy: Develop operational definitions of target behaviors Measure inter-rater/observer reliability  DEFINING BEHAVIOURS Aggression (for example, Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment) Aggression defined as: ✓ Physical (e.g., kicked, punched, threw, and assaulted with various objects) ✓ Verbal (e.g., made aggressive statements such as “Hit him in the nose” and “Pow” or nonaggressive statements such as “He sure is a tough fella” and “He keeps coming back for more”). DEFINING BEHAVIOURS: USE OF CHECKLISTS  ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS Deception: If individuals are to be observed in the absence of informed consent (to reduce reactivity), then a case must be made that this is the only way to investigate this behaviour The APA ethics code does not require informed consent or debriefing, provided that: Behaviour is studied in a public place People are not interfered with Strict confidentiality and anonymity are maintained