Lecture Notes On Research Methods PDF

**Please do not ever post online/social media and do not ever distribute. All rights reserved. Thanks!** **CHAPTER 2** **METHODS** **I -- Introduction**: **[Definition]**: Psych is a science. Study of how we think, feel, and behave. **[Scope]**: Huge since every aspect of human life is psych...

**Please do not ever post online/social media and do not ever distribute. All rights reserved. Thanks!** **CHAPTER 2** **METHODS** **I -- Introduction**: **[Definition]**: Psych is a science. Study of how we think, feel, and behave. **[Scope]**: Huge since every aspect of human life is psych. **A - Why do we need science?** **[Intuition]**: When it comes to understanding the natural world, intuition is not the way to go. Can be misleading. **[Common sense]**: Common sense is not so common. What's common sense to me is not common sense to you. Even when common sense produces good judgement, we cannot use it to understand the natural world because it does not introduce new knowledge. **[Overconfidence]**: Humans tend to be overconfident. B. **How Do We Know?**: **[Rationalism]**: We cannot trust our senses and experiences. We must use pure logic, reason, and critical thinking. **[Empiricism]**: The best way to know is to use our senses. (Observations) **[Kant]**: According to Kant, we need both empiricism and rationalism together. C. **The Scientific Method**: 1. Identify the problem 2. Gather information 3. Develop a hypothesis (See below) 4. Design and conduct experiment (or other type of studies). 5. Analyze the data and draw conclusion 6. Restart the process *Must be falsifiable*: Must be able to test and falsify the hypothesis. **II -- Types of Research Methods (3)** **A- Descriptive Research**: **A.1 Purpose**: **[It allows]**: It allows us to systemically and objectively observe and describe observations. **[It allows us to answer]**: What When Where How ***[However, it does not]***: Answer the "Why". Cannot draw conclusions about cause and effect. **A.2 Case Study**: **[Definition]**: Study in depth of either one person or a small group of people. **[Advantages]**: *Keep a record*: Keep a record of rare events and cases that otherwise would be lost. *1^st^ step*: Excellent first step when something is very complex, or we don't know much about it. *Most*: Most in depth research one can do *Capture*: When we do a case study it may allow us to capture a glimpse of human nature and the human condition. **[Disadvantages]**: *Researcher bias*: No matter how hard researchers try to be objective they still may be influenced by their own theories, beliefs, and expectations. They may end up hearing what they want to hear and seeing what they want to see. *Cannot*: CANNOT generalize from a case study because the sample is so small. **A.3 Survey**: **[Definition]**: Researchers asking a large sample of people questions that they would like the answer to. It is impossible to survey every single person in a population. The solution is to extract a sample from the population. **[Representative sample]**: We need to make sure the characteristics of our sample closely reflect the characteristics of our population. **[Why]**? We must have it because we use that sample to generalize to the population. **[How]**? Researchers use random sampling in order to obtain a random sample. **[Random sampling]**: Every single person in the population of interest has an equal chance to be in the survey. Chance, only chance and nothing but chance determines who ends up in the sample. **[Simple random sample]**: Go into the population of interest and extract a sample using random sampling **[Stratified random sample]**: We take the population we are interested in, and we break it down into the different groups we are interested in. Then we go into every one of those groups and extract a sample from them. **[Advantages]**: *Cheap*: Very cheap *Easy to*: Very easy to administer *Includes*: We can include people that aren't usually included in research. Ex. Illiterate people, homebound people, etc. *Sometimes it is the only way*: Sometimes it is the only way to know something. **[Disadvantages]**: *Truth*: Just because you ask something, it doesn't mean you'll get the truth. *Easily*: The answers we get can be easily influenced by how we word a question (Word influence). The results we get can be easily affected by the characteristics of the person asking the question. To help you out a little bit and save you some time, I created the following notes for you: **A.4 Naturalistic Observation [Definition]**: The research leave their labs and they do their research in the real world. **[A fundamental rule]**: The researcher must not interfere in any way, shape or form. They are just to observe. **[Advantages]**: *Real*: It does not get more real than this. We move away from the artificiality of the lab. *Sometimes this is the only way*: Sometimes this is the only way to get the information we need. *Discovery*: By going to the real world to do research, we may discover things that we may never discover in the lab. **[Disadvantages]**: *Researcher bias*: Researcher bias same as before. *The presence*: Even though researchers do not interfere, still the mere presence of the researcher can influence an effect and change the observed behaviours. Solution is that researcher must blend in. **A.5 Participant observation**: Participant observation is a research method in which a researcher becomes part of the group under investigation. Sometimes this is the only way to gain access to a group. **B- Correlational Research**: Observe, describe, and make predictions. **[Purpose]**: Allows us to find out if there is a systematic and reliable relationship between two or more variables. ❖ **3 major questions**: **Q1. Do they covary**? Is there a relationship? If one variable changes, does the other change as well. If yes, they covary. **Q2. In what direction**? *Positive correlation: The two variables change in the same direction.* *Negative correlation*: The two variables change in opposite direction. If one goes up, other goes down and vice versa. **Q3. How strong is the relationship? To what extent**? Correlation coefficient: r, allows us to answer all 3 questions. Value of r ranges between, -1 and +1. (-) does not mean weak it means negative correlation. (+) does not mean strong, it means postivie correlation. (1) mean perfect correlation. (0) means there is no correlation. **[Advantages]**: *Excellent first step*: Before an experiment is done, one starts by doing a correlational study. If relationship is found, an experiment can be done. *The only option*: Sometimes it is our only option. *Describe and predict*: If we know information about one of the variables, we can make a prediction about the other. *Take*: Once we know there is a correlation between two variables, we can start taking precautions and preventive measures. **[Disadvantages]**: *CANNOT CANNOT*: *CANNOT infer causality. You CANNOT say there is a cause-and-effect relationship.* C. **Experimental Research**: **C.1 Introduction**: Experimental research allows us to observe, describe, predict and [explain]. **[It is the]** **[only]**: Type of research that allows us to talk about cause-and-effect relationships. Can be done in the lab and real world. **[Why]**? 1. Researcher manipulates independent variable of interest. 2. Researcher controls all other independent variables that could interfere with his results. **[Independent variable]** (IV): Variable that causes change in another variable. Either manipulated or controlled. **[Dependent variable]** (DV): Variable that is being changed, influenced, affected by the independent variable. Researcher measures this. **[Can be done]**: In the lab Field experiment: Done in the real world. Here researcher. Can manipulate and control variables **C.2 Manipulate the IV**: **Create two levels of the IV of interest. = create two groups.** **One group will be exposed to the IV (experimental group) and one group will not be exposed to IV(Control group).** Ex. Milk increases bone density. 1 group of females drink milk, 1 group doesn't drink milk. **C.3 Control All Other IVs**: **MUST!** Control all other independent variables that he is not studying so that they do not affect the dependant variable. Must control both known and unknown independent variables. **[Confounding variables]**: Independent variables that aren't the subject of interest but could affect results. They must be controlled. **[Why]**? The researcher won't know which variable caused the change in the dependant variable. His results would be useless. **[Known IVs]**: Independent variables that we know from past knowledge, experience, etc. that they do influence the dependant variable of interest. **[Unknown IVs]**: *Random assignment*: Every single subject in the study, has a chance of being in the control group or experimental group. Chance, only chance, nothing but chance will determine which subject will be in the control group and who's going to be in the experimental group. **[Placebo effect]**: We must control for the placebo effect. *Inert*: Placebo is an inert substance or value that has no effect. **III -- Making Sense Of The Data (Section 2.7 in the book)** **Earn a point assignment:** **[On your own],** study subsections: 2.7.1 and 2.7.2 of the book. There is nothing to submit. Master this information and guaranteed there will be questions on the first midterm from those 2 subsections. You do not need to confirm this with me. The information is accurate. **[Subsection: 2.7.3 of the book]**: **is not included on any of the exams, including the final. You do not need to confirm this with me :) It is not part of the course.** **Happy Learning :)** **CHAPTER 3** **Biology & Neuroscience** I to VI **I - The Nervous System**: **[It consists]**: NS CNS PNS Brain and spinal cord All nerves that are not part of the brain and spinal cord. **[The 2 divisions]**: Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems. Even simple movements require both. **[Your NS is]**: Distinct and unique. *Receives*: Receives info from environment and internal body. *Analyzes*: Organize analyze and integrate the information. *Uses this information to*: Use info in order to send out messages to muscles, glands, etc. in order to produce behaviours. **[Along the way]**: Nervous system creates consciousness and awareness (see chapter 6). **[The question]**: Why do we learn about the nervous system in psychology? Anything psychological is biological and physiological. **II. Cells of the NS**: **A. Neurons**: **[Basic unit]** : Basic unit of communication in the nervous system. **[In a nutshell]**: *The communication*: It is an electrochemical process. *When*: A neuron decides to communicate with another neuron, it fires an action potential (AP). *Action potential/neural impulse/electrical impulse*: they all mean the same thing *Ultimately*: The action potential is going to lead to the release of NTM. *Neurotransmitters*: Chemicals that neurons use to send out messages to other neurons. **[Neurons come]**: In a variety of shapes and sizes. **[Basic structure]**: Neurons have roughly the same structure. *Cell body* → *soma*: Contains the nucleus and the DNA. Manufactures everything the neuron needs to survive and thrive. *Dendrites*: Two main functions: a. Receive messages from other neurons. b. They increase the SA of the soma without taking up much space. *Axon*: When the neuron fires and produces an AP, it is the axon that will carry it. AP travels all the way down the axon. *Axon branches/ Axon terminals*: Axon branches off into axon terminals. *Terminal buttons*: Little nubs at the ends of axon branches. They release the NTM's. *Myelin sheath*: Some axons in the NS are covered in a myelin sheath. White fatty substance that traps around some axons. Provides insulation Speeds up transmission of info. *Synapse*: This is where neurons meet to communicate. *Synaptic cleft/gap*: Tiny gap between two neurons at the synapse. *Presynaptic neuron is the neuron that sends out messages*. *Postsynaptic neuron is the neuron that receives messages*. **B. Glial Cells (Glia)**: **[Another type]** of cell found in the NS. There are **[billions]** of them. **[Nannies of the neurons]** because they help neurons: *develop* *nutrition* *insulation* *protection* *clean after them* *remove dead neurons* **[More than just nannies]**: Seem to be involved in complex functions including cognitive ones such as learning, attention, intelligence, and creativity. They seem to be also linked with brain diseases. There are **[different types]** of glia cells carrying out a variety of different functions. Below are some examples: **Oligodendrocytes and Schwan** cells are both involved in the production, laying down, and repair of the myelin sheath. **Oligodendrocytes** do so in the CNS while **Schwan** cells do so in the nerves outside of the brain and spinal cord. **Microglia:** Immune function. Play a role in learning and memory: degeneration linked with Alzheimer's disease. **Astrocytes:** Immune function. Linked to neurodegenerative diseases. **III. Communication**: **A & B**: **A. Communication within a neuron**: **[80%:Water]** *Intracellular fluid*: Inside the neuron. *Extracellular fluid*: Outside the neuron. **[Dissolved chemicals, such as]**: **Na^+^ Sodium I.** **Cl ^-^ Chloride I.** **K^+^ Potassium I**. **[These ions]**: They are found inside and outside the neuron in different concentrations. **[Neuron at rest]**: Neuron is not firing, communicating, not producing an AP. More negative ions inside the neuron. (Inside = negatively charged) More positive ions outside the neuron. (Outside = positively charged) -70mV Polarized **[Even at rest]**: The neuron receives messages from other neurons. **2 types of messages**: **[Inhibitory]**: *Instruct the neuron* Not to fire not to communicate. *These messages are going to:* The inside is going to become more negative than at rest. e.g., from -70 mv to -77 mv *As a result, the neuron is:* Less likely to fire. *The membrane is said to be:* Hyperpolarized. **[Excitatory]**: *Instruct the neuron to* Fire, communicate, produce an action potential. *These messages are going to:* Change the concentration of ions. *less negative*: Inside of neuron will be less negative than at rest. e.g., from **-** 70mV to **-** 63mV *As a result, the neuron is more*: Likely to fire. *The membrane is said to be:* Depolarized. **[When?]**: When electric charge inside the neuron is about -50 mV (threshold of excitation). **Now that you have a conceptual understanding of the action potential process. Let us plug in some chemicals. Please note, there is more to the process than covered here. It is beyond an INTRO PSY to cover all of it. You will learn more as you move up the years.** Hello Everyone! Please make sure to have studied and **mastered** the communication within neurons before studying this section. Study this section one baby step at a time and slowly. And go over it few times until the information becomes more familiar. Let me introduce you to the nodes of Ranvier. Please follow the arrows. They are gaps in the myelin sheath that covers the axons. (gentle reminder: Not all axons are covered with Myelin) Why are they there? Do you have doors and windows in your walls? Clearly, the answer is yes. The nodes are the "walls and windows of the axons. Through them, ions can get in and out of the neuron. Technical term: channels. The ions do not move in and out as they please. There are "rules" that govern their movements. We are going to take a look at a couple of those "rules". You will learn more in the second and third year. When a neuron receives inhibitory messages, - Chloride (Cl-) channels open. - Some chloride ions move inside the neuron. (Influx) - When they move in, that increases the number of negative ions inside the neuron. - As a result, the inside of the neuron becomes more negative (more negatively charged) - The membrane is said to be hyperpolarized and the neuron is less likely to fire. (again there is more to the process but for the purposes of this course that is all you need to know) When a neuron receives excitatory messages, - the sodium channels open. - Some sodium ions move inside the neuron. (Influx) - This increases the number of positive ions found inside the neuron. - As a result, the inside of the neuron becomes less negative (less negatively charged) - As you know this means that the membrane is depolarized and the neuron is more likely to fire. - If enough sodium ions enter the neuron for the electrical charge inside the neuron to reach -50mv (threshold of excitation\> explained in the lecture) the neuron will fire. Once the neuron has fired, it needs to go back to its resting potential before it can fire again when prompted. How does the neuron return to the resting potential.? After (key word) the sodium channels have opened and sodium ions had entered the cell, potassium (K+) channels open. What happens when potassium channel open? - Potassium ions start leaving the neuron (Efflux) Keep it simple. That is all you need to know for now. - By potassium ions leaving the neuron, that means there are less positive ions inside the neuron. - The inside of the cell becomes less positive. - Ultimately, the electrical charge reaches -70mv and the neuron is polarized again. The neuron is at its resting potential. Right before the neuron reaches its resting potential, it goes through a refractory period. During this period the neuron will not fire when stimulated. The membrane is hyperpolarized (more negative than -70mv) due to the migration of a high number of potassium ions out of the cell. You might be wondering what happens to the sodium ions that entered the cell, or to the potassium ions that left the cell? Ultimately, sodium ions will be pumped out and potassium ions will be pumped back in. Again, the processes are more complex but that is sufficient for our purposes. **B Communication between neurons**: **[The presynaptic neuron fires]**: *Action potential travels/propagates all the way down the axon until it reaches* *Bind to receptor sites* The neurotransmitter **[must]**: Attach to its own receptor site otherwise the message will not be delivered. **[Each]**: Has its own receptor site. **[Fate of]** : *Reuptake*: The NTM detaches from receptor site and then it goes back home. It is reabsorbed into the presynaptic neuron. Recycled for future use. *Degradation*: Detaches from receptor site. Enzyme then comes and then degrades it. Breaks it down so it cannot deliver the message again. **[Why]**? If there is no degradation or reuptake, the NTM will deliver the same message over and over again. Causes NS to be overexcited or overinhibited. **C. Neurotransmitters (NTM):** Chemicals produced by the brain. Brain uses them to send messages to neurons. **[Some]** deliver *excitatory* messages only. Example: Acetylcholine, Glutamate **[Some]** deliver *inhibitory* messages only. Example: GABA **[Some]** deliver *both types* of messages. Examples: Dopamine, Serotonin, Norepinephrine, Enkaphalins/Endorphins. **[Healthy levels]**: Are an absolute must for us to function well physically and mentally. **[Dopamine]**: Major NTM with a variety of functions. [Healthy levels]: Make us happy and in good mood, motivated and pursue our goals, our motor function tends to be healthy, and we derive pleasure from life and its activities. [When levels are low]: We are depressed, we are not motivated, we could have motor problems, associated with Parkinson's disease, and little to no pleasure from life. [Dopamine abnormalities]: Associated with schizophrenia. **Study table 3.1 Book. You do not need to memorize the "Associated drugs".** **C. Drugs & the brain**: **[Synapse]**: Drugs produce their effect at the level of the synapse. Interfere with communications between neurons. Interfere with activity of NTM. Either enhance activity, or reduce it, or block it altogether. **[Drugs:]** *Agonists*: They increase enhance the activity of NTM. Ex. Increase release of NTM. Some agonists mimic the NTM. Take over the receptor site and they are going to deliver a message to the neuron. *Antagonists*: Drugs that decrease/ reduce activity of a NTM or block it altogether. Can block it by attaching to the receptor site and blocking it. By blocking it they stop the NTM from attaching and delivering its message. **[Partial agonists and partial antagonists]**: Same thing but lesser effect (less powerful). **[Competitive (direct)]**: Some drugs are going to compete directly against the NTM for the same receptor site. The agonist will take it over and deliver a message. The antagonist will take it over and block it. Antagonist does not deliver messages. **[Non-competitive (indirect)]**: Do not directly compete against the NTM for the same receptor site. They go find themselves different receptor site and they attach to it. From that receptor site they interfere with the activity of the NTM either enhancing it or reducing it.