PROTEIN METABOLISM.docx

UNIVERSITY OF JUBA SCHOOL OF COMMUNITY STUDIES AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT DEPARTMENT OF FOOD AND NUTRITION SCIENCE CLASS FOURTH YEAR 2024 SEMESTER SEVEN 2024 COURSE FOOD BIOCHEMISTRY GROUP ASSIGNMENT NO 4 S/N0 NAME INDEX NO ------ ---------------------- ------------ 1...

UNIVERSITY OF JUBA SCHOOL OF COMMUNITY STUDIES AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT DEPARTMENT OF FOOD AND NUTRITION SCIENCE CLASS FOURTH YEAR 2024 SEMESTER SEVEN 2024 COURSE FOOD BIOCHEMISTRY GROUP ASSIGNMENT NO 4 S/N0 NAME INDEX NO ------ ---------------------- ------------ 1 MAYUEN MAKER MALEK 19-CRD-302 2 MORANGA OMOT OJO 19-CRD-292 3 MAWEL MAWAL AKIM 19-CRD-301 4 MARTIN MAKUEI CHOL 19-CRD-295 5 MOSES KHAMAN MONYDIT 19-CRD-305 6 MAXWELL SOMULO UWAR 17-CRD-050 Submission date/23/7/2024 **PROTEIN METABOLISM**: refer to as the biochemical processes responsible for synthesis and breakdown of protein. The major metabolic system playing role in maintenance of body protein and amino acid and homeostasis are protein synthesis, protein breakdown, amino acid interconversation, reformation and oxidation with elimination of co2 and urea production and amino acid synthesis. **Amino acid catabolism** is part of the larger process of the metabolism of nitrogen-containing molecules. Nitrogen enters the body in a variety of compounds present in food, the most important being amino acids contained in dietary protein. Nitrogen leaves the body as urea, ammonia, and other products derived from amino acid metabolism. The role of body proteins in these transformations involves two important concepts: the amino acid pool and protein turnover. **A. Amino acid pool** Free amino acids are present throughout the body, for example, in cells, blood, and the extracellular fluids. For the purpose of this discussion, envision all these amino acids as if they belonged to a single entity, called the amino acid pool. This pool is supplied by three sources: 1\) Amino acids provided by the degradation of body proteins, 2\) Amino acids derived from dietary protein, and 3\) Synthesis of nonessential amino acids from simple intermediates of metabolism. Conversely, the amino pool is depleted by three routes: 1\) Synthesis of body protein, 2) amino acids consumed as precursors of essential nitrogen-containing small molecules, and 3) conversion of amino acids to glucose, glycogen, fatty acids, ketone bodies, or CO2 + H2O. Although the amino acid pool is small (comprised of about 90--100 g of amino acids) in comparison with the amount of protein in the body (about 12 kg in a 70-kg man), it is conceptually at the center of whole-body nitrogen metabolism. **B. Protein turnover** Most proteins in the body are constantly being synthesized and then degraded, permitting the removal of abnormal or unneeded proteins. For many proteins, regulation of synthesis determines the concentration of protein in the cell, with protein degradation assuming a minor role. For other proteins, the rate of synthesis is constitutive, that is, relatively constant, and cellular levels of the protein are controlled by selective degradation. **Plasma protein**: is the collection of intricate molecules found in blood plasma.\ Their roles are many and varied, and they are mostly synthesized by the liver.\ For example, albumin, globulins, and fibrinogen are three most important plasma proteins. **Categories of plasma protein**: Albumin: making up around 60% of all the proteins in the blood, albumin is most prevalent of plasma protein. It is a simple protein made up of just one amino acid chain. Albumin is essential for preserving the blood osmotic pressure, which is required to maintain the body electrolyte and water balance. Globulins, alpha, beta, and gamma globulins are only a view of the many subtypes of globulins, a class of proteins that are more complicated than albumin. Alpha globulins: the group of proteins known as alpha globulins includes the alpha\_retoprotein, which is generated by the foetal liver and is utilized as a marker for certain cancers. Beta globulins: is include a variety of proteins, including complement proteins and transferrin. Immunoglobulin, commonly referred to as gamma globulins are essential for the immunological response. Fibrinogen is a complex protein that is involved in the blood clotting process. It is synthesized by the liver and is converted to fibrin helps to form a clot. **Functions plasma protein** **Blood osmotic pressure maintenance: is the primary protein that aids in blood osmotic pressure maintenance.** **Transportation: hormones and other molecules are transported by globulins and albumin, which also aid in the movement of enzymes and other molecules.** **Blood clot formation: the primary protein that aid in the formation of blood clots is fibrinogen.** **Immunity: some globulins, including immunoglobulin,** **Hormonal Regulation of Protein Metabolism:\ **Within the cell, proteins go through catabolism which restores the intracellular amino acid pool.\ Protein is broken down into amino acid by the action of liposomal proteases which are then utilized for building proteins, as and when required by the cell. In conditions of starvation, muscle protein can break down into amino acids, which on undergoing gluconeogenesis can act as an energy source, whereas in fed state or during condition of metabolic acidosis, glutamine might act as a fuel for renal system. If amino acids are in excess, here is no mechanism in human body for their storage.\ Hence, they are transformed into glucose or ketones or are decomposed.\ Decomposition forms hydrocarbons and nitrogenous waste. Since nitrogen produces ammonium ions, a high concentration of nitrogen might become toxic to the body.\ The processing and excretion of nitrogen from our body is done through urea cycle. **Functions and important of vitamin.** **Function of vitamin** [**Vitamins**](https://cdn.britannica.com/46/201146-050-731A9E5B/healthy-foods-vegetables-fruit-fish-oils.jpg) **Fruits, vegetables, and animal products provide many of the vitamins necessary for human health.** **There are 13 essential [vitamins](https://www.britannica.com/science/vitamin) necessary for the normal health and growth of the [human body](https://www.britannica.com/science/human-body). Given that vitamins cannot usually be synthesized by the body in sufficient amounts, they must be obtained from the diet or from some synthetic source. They are traditionally separated into two groups: water-soluble vitamins and fat-soluble vitamins. The following table lists the common and chemical names of the essential vitamins, along with their main biological functions and deficiency symptoms.** **Water-soluble vitamins** ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **vitamin** **alternative names/forms** **biological function** **symptoms of deficiency** [**thiamin**](https://www.britannica.com/science/thiamin) **vitamin B1** **component of a coenzyme in carbohydrate metabolism; supports normal nerve function** **impairment of the nerves and heart muscle wasting** [**riboflavin**](https://www.britannica.com/science/riboflavin) **vitamin B2** **component of coenzymes required for energy production and lipid, vitamin, mineral, and drug metabolism; antioxidant** **inflammation of the skin, tongue, and lips; ocular disturbances; nervous symptoms** [**niacin**](https://www.britannica.com/science/niacin) **nicotinic acid, nicotinamide** **component of coenzymes used broadly in cellular metabolism, oxidation of fuel molecules, and fatty acid and steroid synthesis** **skin lesions, gastrointestinal disturbances, nervous symptoms** [**vitamin B6**](https://www.britannica.com/science/vitamin-B6) **pyridoxine, pyridoxal, pyridoxamine** **component of coenzymes in metabolism of amino acids and other nitrogen-containing compounds; synthesis of haemoglobin, neurotransmitters; regulation of blood glucose levels** **dermatitis, mental depression, confusion, convulsions, anemia** [**folic acid**](https://www.britannica.com/science/folic-acid) **folate, folacin, pteroylglutamic acid** **component of coenzymes in DNA synthesis, metabolism of amino acids; required for cell division, maturation of red blood cells** **impaired formation of red blood cells, weakness, irritability, headache, palpitations, inflammation of mouth, neural tube defects in fetus** [**vitamin B12**](https://www.britannica.com/science/vitamin-B12) **cobalamin, cyanocobalamin** **cofactor for enzymes in metabolism of amino acids (including folic acid) and fatty acids; required for new cell synthesis, normal blood formation, and neurological function** **smoothness of the tongue, gastrointestinal disturbances, nervous symptoms** [**pantothenic acid**](https://www.britannica.com/science/pantothenic-acid) **as component of coenzyme A, essential for metabolism of carbohydrate, protein, and fat; cofactor for elongation of fatty acids** **weakness, gastrointestinal disturbances, nervous symptoms, fatigue, sleep disturbances, restlessness, nausea** [**biotin**](https://www.britannica.com/science/biotin) **cofactor in carbohydrate, fatty acid, and amino acid metabolism** **dermatitis, hair loss, conjunctivitis, neurological symptoms** [**vitamin C**](https://www.britannica.com/science/vitamin-C) **ascorbic acid** **antioxidant; synthesis of collagen, carnitine, amino acids, and hormones; immune function; enhances absorption of nonheme iron (from plant foods)** **swollen and bleeding gums, soreness and stiffness of the joints and lower extremities, bleeding under the skin and in deep tissues, slow wound healing, anemia** **Fat-soluble vitamins** --------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **vitamin** **alternative names/forms** **biological function** **symptoms of deficiency** [**vitamin A**](https://www.britannica.com/science/vitamin-A) **retinol, retinal, retinoic acid, beta-carotene (plant version)** **normal vision, integrity of epithelial cells (mucous membranes and skin), reproduction, embryonic development, growth, immune response** **ocular disturbances leading to blindness, growth retardation, dry skin, diarrhea, vulnerability to infection (see [vitamin A deficiency](https://www.britannica.com/science/vitamin-A-deficiency))** [**vitamin D**](https://www.britannica.com/science/vitamin-D) **calciferol, calatriol (1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D1 or vitamin D hormone), cholecalciferol (D3; plant version), ergocalciferol (D2; animal version)** **maintenance of blood calcium and phosphorus levels, proper mineralization of bones** **defective bone growth in children, soft bones in adults deficiency** **vitamin E** **alpha-tocopherol, tocopherol, tocotrienol** **antioxidant; interruption of free radical chain reactions; protection of polyunsaturated fatty acids, cell membranes** **peripheral neuropathy, breakdown of red blood cells** [**vitamin K**](https://www.britannica.com/science/vitamin-K) **phylloquinone, menaquinone, menadione, naphthoquinone** **synthesis of proteins involved in blood coagulation and bone metabolism** **impaired clotting of the blood and internal bleeding** **Here are the 13 most important vitamins for your body:** **The 13 vitamins your body needs fall into one of those two categories and, not surprisingly, that affects how you should take them in supplement form.** **1. Vitamin A, fat soluble** **What it does: Vitamin A might not get as much attention as vitamins C and D, but it's crucial nonetheless. This fat-soluble vitamin helps keep your immune system strong, fosters communication among your cells and much more. Its [beta-carotenes](https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminA-HealthProfessional/) are crucial for your eye health.** **The lowdown on supplements: Bolstered by its beauty benefits, the Vitamin A market is expected to eclipse \$860 million by 2024. Between 27% and 34% of U.S. adults take a supplement containing this vitamin; standalones typically outline the percentage of Vitamin A versus beta-carotene.** **The B Vitamins, water soluble** **What they do: The water-soluble B vitamins are crucial for transforming nutrients into energy.** **The lowdown on supplements: The ever-popular B complex vitamin was one of the only shown to produce measurable results in [the major vitamin study](https://www.onlinejacc.org/content/71/22/2570) released last month. That could be one reason why the market is booming, expected to grow [4.3% year-over-year](https://www.reportbuyer.com/product/3200299/global-vitamin-b-complex-ingredients-market-2015-2019.html) through 2019. It's most common to take the B vitamins in a blend since they all work together, so we won't break out the individual market size of each in the sections below. But if you're not taking a B complex, make sure to find food or supplement sources of these eight "Bs."** **2. Vitamin B1 (thiamine)** **The first B vitamin discovered by scientists, hence its "1" title, thiamine helps turn carbs into energy.** **3. Vitamin B2 (riboflavin)** **Riboflavin coordinates with the other B vitamins to produce red blood cells.** **4. Vitamin B3 (niacin)** **This vitamin is key to keeping your digestion and nervous systems in top form.** **5. Vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid)** **Want to ensure fats and carbs are broken down properly and transformed into energy? Load up on Vitamin B5. It's also good for your liver and eyes.** **6. Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine)** **This vitamin, most often just called B6, helps your body create antibodies and hemoglobin, and break down fats.** **7. Vitamin B7 (biotin)** **This supplement has recently jolted to rock star status thanks to its potential beauty-boosting properties. It's expected to grow by nearly 8% over the next four years.** **8. Vitamin B12** **This B is crucial to metabolizing protein and maintaining a well-functioning central nervous system.** **9. Folic Acid (Vitamin B9)** **This pregnancy must-have helps you create, and maintain, healthy cells.** **10. Vitamin C, water soluble** **What it does: You need Vitamin C for wound healing, skin health, strong immunity and healthy gums and teeth. It also triggers the production of collagen.** **The lowdown on supplements: Aside from multivitamins, Vitamin C is typically the most popular supplement among U.S. adults. The market is predicted to generate about \$9.8 billion between now and 2022.** **11. Vitamin D, fat soluble** **What it does: Vitamin D can help your body absorb calcium (a nutrient, not a vitamin; hence its omission from this list). This hormone boosts your bone health, helps regulate your body and can play a role in warding off age-related issues like osteoporosis.** **The lowdown on supplements: Vitamin D is actually produced within the body, and can be absorbed through exposure to the sun (though that's no excuse for skipping sunscreen). Vitamin D supplements have surged in popularity along with the aging population, expected to reach [\$2.5 billion](https://www.marketsandmarkets.com/PressReleases/vitamin-d.asp) in the next two years. Ergocalciferol, the vegetarian form, and cholecalciferol, from animal sources like fish liver oil, are two common types of Vitamin D supplements. Opt for the fast-absorbing animal form.** **12. Vitamin E, fat soluble** **What it does: Vitamin E is crucial for the health of your immune system, eyes and skin. As an added bonus, this antioxidant can also reduce the visible signs of aging by fighting free radicals.** **The lowdown on supplements: The Vitamin E market supplement hit \$820.18 million last year. These supplements could be a good option if you have a Vitamin E deficiency, but there are also[ risks associated with taking the vitamin](https://www.webmd.com/diet/supplement-guide-vitamin-e#2) in high doses.** **13. Vitamin K, fat soluble** **What it does: One of the least popular of the essential 13, Vitamin K is crucial nonetheless, [aiding in blood clotting](https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminK-Consumer/) and other important functions within your body.** **The lowdown on supplements: You'll find Vitamin K in many multivitamins. As a standalone supplement, you'll most commonly see Vitamin K1, from plants, or Vitamin K2, from dairy. Vitamin K hasn't seen a market explosion like vitamins C, D and E, which leaves many analysts predicting its golden days are yet to come.** **If you're exploring the world of nutrition supplements, keep in mind that many [top-rated fat burners](https://www.thesupplementreviews.org/fat-burners/best-fat-burners/) and high-quality nootropics contain some B vitamins. So, if you're concerned, you're not getting enough of this magic 13, multivitamins or single vitamin pills don't have to be your only options** Reference TU, chengjian, ET all Depletion of abundant plasma proteomics and limitation of plasma proteins. Aaronson, K.F., et al, sequential changes plasma proteins after surgical trauma." Scandinavian Journal of clinical and laboratory. Putnam, Frank, ed. The plasma protein V3: Structure function, and genetic control. Elsevier, 2012