Project MBA.pptx

A PROJECT REPORT ON “ _______________________” SUBMITTED To CENTRE FOR ONLINE LEARNING Dr. D.Y. PATIL VIDYA PEETH, PUNE IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF DEGREEOF MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION...

A PROJECT REPORT ON “ _______________________” SUBMITTED To CENTRE FOR ONLINE LEARNING Dr. D.Y. PATIL VIDYA PEETH, PUNE IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF DEGREEOF MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION BY Dr. REXON ALBERT PRN: 205029075 BATCH 2022 -2024  Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth’s CENTRE FOR ONLINE LEARNING, Sant TukaramNagar,Pune. CERTIFICATE This is to certify that Mr./Ms. Dr. Rexon Albert PRN - _205029075 has completed his/her internship at CMHO starting from to. His / Her project work was a part of the MBA (ONLINE LEARNING) The project is on _____________________________________________________________ Which includes research as well as industry practices. He/She was very sincere and committed in all tasks. Course Coordinator Dr. Yogesh P. Jojare Associate Professor Date -  COMPANY LETTER (TO BE PROVIDED BY THE COMP ANY WHERE THE PROJECT WILL BE CARRIED OUT) To whomsoever it may concern This is to certify that Mr. Dr. Rexon Albert PRN - 2205029075 has completed his internship at CMHO starting from to His project work was a part of the MBA (ONLINE LEARNING) The project is on Which includes research as well as industry practices. He was very sincere and committed in all tasks. Signature & Seal of Industry Guide  DECLARATION BY LEARNER This is to declare that I have carried out this project work myself in part fulfillment of the M.B.A Program of Centre for Online Learning of Dr.D.Y.Patil Vidyapeeth’s, Pune – 411018 The work is original, has not been copied from anywhere else, and has not been submitted to any other University / Institute for an award of any degree / diploma. Date: - 1/07/2024 Signature: - Place: Damoh Name: Dr. Rexon Albert  ACKNOWLEDGEMENT (TO BE GIVEN BY THE LEARNER) I am deeply indebted to the Center For Online Learning Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth , for giving me this opportunity, I acknowledge the constant support and encouragement for my institutional guide Professor Dr. Yogesh P. Jojare Associate Professor at Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth Pune Center for Online Learning for the successful completion for this work. I profusely thank for my mentor Mr. Krutish Navnath Pacharne for his prompt Communication and response , I heartly thank my industrial guide for her guidance I thank for all the members of organization for their support  Table of content Sr. Item Page No No. 1 Executive Summary 2 Chapter 1: Introduction (Company Profile & General Introduction of Topic) & Objective, Scope and Purpose of Study 3 Chapter 2: Literature Review 4 Chapter 3: Research methodology 5 Chapter 4: Data Analysis 6 Chapter 5: Findings, suggestions, recommendation 7 Chapter 6: Conclusion 8 Bibliography (Books, Journals, research work) 9 Reference (Website, company paper) 10 Annexure (A to C) 11 A. Questionnaire 12 B. Scope for future study 13 C. Photograph, Drawings  EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The purpose of the systematic review of strategies for addressing vaccine hesitancy is to identify strategies that have been implemented and evaluated across diverse global contexts in an effort to respond to, and manage, issues of vaccine hesitancy. This is to fulfill the requirements of the SAGE working group (WG) dealing with vaccine hesitancy in respect to: a. identifying existing and new activities and strategies relating to vaccines or from other areas that could successfully address vaccine hesitancy; b. identifying strategies that do not work well, and; c. prioritising activities and strategies based on an assessment of their potential impact. These requirements were translated into the following specific objectives: 1. Identify published strategies related to vaccine hesitancy and hesitancy of other health technologies (reproductive health technologies (RHT) were chosen as the additional focus) and provide a descriptive analysis of the findings; 2. Map all evaluated strategies to the SAGE WG “Model of determinants of Vaccine Hesitancy” (Appendix 1) and identify key characteristics; 3. Evaluate relevant evaluated strategies relating to vaccine hesitancy using GRADE (Grades of Recommendation, Assessment, Development and Evaluation); relevance was informed by the PICO questions defined a priori by the WG, and; 4. Synthesise findings in a manner which aids the design of future interventions and further research. CHAPTER: 1 OBJECTIVES Objective 1 - A systematic literature review methodology was applied to access and assess both peer- reviewed and grey literature. Interventions relating to hesitancy towards RHT were analysed to obtain greater insights surrounding lack of uptake of available health technologies and to ascertain whether strategies aimed at addressing hesitancy towards RHTs could be adopted to address vaccine hesitancy. Objective 2 - Characteristics of evaluated interventions were mapped against the SAGE WG Model of determinants of vaccine hesitancy and also grouped according to one of four identified themes which characterise the type of intervention: i) Multi-component ii) Dialogue-based iii) Incentive-based iv) Reminder/recall-based Objective 3 - The GRADE approach was applied for grading the quality of evidence of a selection of peer-reviewed primary studies that evaluated interventions; selection was based on the relevance of studies to the fifteen PICO questions set out a priori by the SAGE WG these questions were developed under one of three intervention themes (further defined below): 1 1. Dialogue-based, 2. Incentive-based (non-financial), 3. Reminder-recall. The multi-component theme was excluded in this section because of a preference expressed by the WG to focus on identifying and assessing the impact of single component approaches. However, data were included where a multi component intervention provided suitable data to assess the effect of its individual component parts. Risk of bias was assessed for each study and the evidence was set out against each individual PICO question. Theme categories for PICO questions: I. Dialogue-based- which included the involvement of religious or traditional leaders, social mobilisation, social media, mass media, and communication or information-based tools for health care workers; II. Incentive-based (non-financial), which included the provision of food or other goods to encourage vaccination, and; III. Reminder/recall-based, including telephone call/letter to remind the target population about vaccination. There were two outcomes of interest: 1. Impact on vaccination uptake (behavioural shift); 2. Impact on vaccine/vaccination knowledge/awareness and/or attitude (psychological shift Results Objective 1. Identification of published interventions and descriptive analysis of the findings Table 1 sets out the number of studies identified across the literature that acknowledged interventions relating to hesitancy (vaccines and RHTs), and whether these were evaluated or not. All evaluated interventions were coded by country, WHO region1, target vaccine, target population and publication year. The World Health Organization (WHO) divides the world into six WHO regions, for the purposes of reporting, analysis and administration: WHO African (AFR), WHO region of the Americas (AMR), WHO South East Asia (SEAR) WHO European (EUR), WHO Eastern Mediterranean (EMR) and WHO West Pacific (WPR). Overall, for the period January 2007-October 2013, the number of peer-reviewed studies evaluating interventions peaked in 2011 and has remained relatively stable since. However, only five studies actually used the terms ‘vaccine hesitant/hesitancy’, which indicates the relative newness of the concept and use in research vernacular. Studies that did not explicitly mention vaccine hesitancy were however retained because they indicated research on conceptually similar issues that matched one or more of the determinants of vaccine hesitancy as set out in the SAGE WG model of determinants of vaccine hesitancy. Very few evaluated interventions were identified in the grey literature with one or two articles annually at most from 1996-2012. However, in 2013, eight relevant articles were found. 2 CHAPTER: 2 LITERATURE REVIEW As a companion to the systematic review on the barriers and promoters of vaccine hesitancy (4) conducted on behalf of the SAGE working group on vaccine hesitancy, the purpose of this systematic review of peer review and grey literature was to identify strategies that have been put forward to respond to and manage vaccine hesitancy. Since the findings of the first review indicated that much of the peer-reviewed literature on vaccine hesitancy focuses on high income countries, particularly AMR and EUR, this second review was broadened to include grey literature, with the goal of identifying strategic approaches more comprehensively and from all WHO regions. In addition, given the relatively new development of the concept of vaccine hesitancy and the potential learnings from other areas of health that may have experienced similar issues, this report also includes a review of strategies used to address hesitancy around reproductive health technologies to seek relevant experiences outside of immunisation and to ascertain whether strategies aimed at addressing hesitancy surrounding reproductive health technologies could be used to address vaccine hesitancy. Lastly, in accordance with the working groups terms of reference, a selection of interventions were assessed using GRADE in an effort to provide a sense of the quality of the evidence that supports the working group’s recommendations to the SAGE committee. Objectives In accordance with the SAGE WG’s terms of reference, the objectives of the review were to: 1. Identify published strategies related to vaccine hesitancy and hesitancy of other health technologies (reproductive health technologies (RHT) were chosen as the additional focus) and provide a descriptive analysis of the findings; 2. Map all evaluated strategies to the SAGE WG “Model of determinants of Vaccine Hesitancy” (Appendix 1) and identify key characteristics; 3. Evaluate relevant evaluated strategies relating to vaccine hesitancy using GRADE (Grades of Recommendation, Assessment, Development and Evaluation); relevance was informed by the PICO questions defined a priori by the WG, and; 4. Synthesise findings in a manner which aids the design of future interventions and further research. 1. Sumitra Pokharel and Roshan Chhetri, A Literature Review on Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on Teaching and Learning There is a fear of losing 2020 academic year or even more in the coming future. The need of the hour is to innovate and implement alternative educational system and assessment strategies. The COVID-19 pandemic has provided us with an opportunity to pave the way for introducing digital learning. This article aims to provide a comprehensive report on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on online teaching and learning of various papers and indicate the way forward. 2. Oner Ozdemir , Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): Diagnosis and Management : The COVID-19 disease should be mostly thought in cases with fever and/or airway manifestations that have had contact with a verified/suspected case. Upon suspicion of COVID-19 disease, in- fiction control actions should be executed and public health officials visited (53). Besides testing for other respiratory viral pathogens, a nasopharyngeal swab should be sent for RT-PCR testing. Man-agreement basically consists of palliative care. Home care may be likely for cases with a mild disease that can be sufficiently isolated. To decrease the danger of spread in society, people should be advised to wash hands assiduously, carry out respiratory hygiene, and keep away from crowds and close contact with sick individuals. Facemasks are not 3  regularly suggested for asymptomatic cases, but social distancing is advised in every place that has society spread. 3. Shazia Rashid and Sunishtha Singh Yadav , Impact of Covid-19 Pandemic on Higher Education and Research :There are no best practices for universities and higher educational institutions to mimic and no known models to follow. Post-pandemic educational institutions may need to identify the issues that they may face and prepare to take tough decisions in the coming months. The university communities will need to reflect on their educational vision and mission to ensure student learning outcomes and standards of educational quality are not compromised. The universities will have to engage and consult all their stakeholders in the nuanced balancing of financial costs and public health that are intertwined with missions of education, knowledge creation, and service to society. The higher educational institutions must be ready for a tough road ahead post-pandemic where their decisions will shape and steer the future of their students. 4. Edeh Michael Onyema, Dr. Nwafor Chika Eucheria Dr. Faith Ayobamidele Obafemi Shuvro Sen Fyneface Grace Atonye Dr. Aabha Sharma Alhuseen Omar Alsayed ,Impact of Corona virus Pandemic on Education The study establishes that the Corona virus pandemic has adverse effects on education. COVID-19 has major effects on school characteristics, including research, academic programmers, Staff professional development and jobs in the academic sector etc. These effects were felt by both educational institutions, educators, students and parents and other stakeholders in education. The study emphasizes the need for adoption of technology in education, as a way to curb the effects of Corona virus and other future pandemics in education. Thus, the study acknowledges that the decision to shutdown schools for Corona virus across the world may be hurtful, but it is sensible considering the rate of spread, and the dangers imposed by COVID-19 pandemic. The unprecedented school closures for Corona virus remains a lesson and a warning to the entire educational world particularly those who are yet to embrace or adopt emerging learning technologies that support online or remote education. Stakeholders in the education sector have to develop robust strategies to deal with post-Corona virus era. 5. Dr. Nwafor Chika Eucheria, Impact of Corona virus Pandemic on Education: Most of the students' education has been affected by the closure measures taken by the different governments in 13 response to the pandemic 16 , the thing that led to massive learning disruptions and decreased access to proper education. And even though many institutions relied on online education, the poor infrastructures have rendered the process defective 29 , which in turn can raise students anxiety and worries about their studies and future employment 15 , in addition to their concerns on the health of their family 44. Studies on the correlation between the COVID-19 pandemic and sleep quality among university students are limited in Egypt. 6. Andreas Schleicher, the impact of covid-19 on education insights from education at a glance 2020 As they enter the COVID19 recovery phase, it will be critical to reflect on the role of educational systems - and particularly vocational education - in fostering resilient societies. The global health crisis and the lockdown that followed have brought to the fore professions that have often been taken for granted, renewing our awareness of their value to society. This has helped restore a sense of esteem for those workers who have worked relentlessly during this time to keep economies afloat. The outlook is very uncertain. But, if anything, the pandemic has exposed our vulnerability to crises and revealed how precarious and interdependent the economies we have built can be. Disruptions on the scale we have just witnessed are not limited to pandemics, but may also result from natural, political, economic 4  and environmental disorder. Our capacity to react effectively and efficiently in the future will hinge on governments’ foresight, readiness and preparedness. Through their role in developing the competencies and skills needed for tomorrow’s society, education systems will need to be at the heart of this planning. This includes rethinking how the economy should evolve to guard against adversity, and defining the skills, education and training required to support it. This also means working in close collaboration with other government sectors and the private sector to increase the attractiveness and labour-market prospects of certain professions, including those considered paramount for the common good. Real change often takes place in deep crises, and this moment holds the possibility that we won’t return to the status quo when things return to “normal”. While this crisis has deeply disruptive implications, including for education, it does not have predetermined outcomes. It will be the nature of our collective and systemic responses to these disruptions that will determine how we are affected by them. In this sense, the pandemic is also a call to renew the commitment to the Sustainable Development Goals. Ensuring that all young people have the opportunity to succeed at school and develop the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values that will allow them to contribute to society is at the heart of the global agenda and education’s promise to our future society. The current crisis has tested our ability to deal with large-scale disruptions. It is now up to us to build as its legacy a more resilient society. 7. Ms. Toshika Pareek1 and Dr. Kiran Soni2, a comprehensive study on covid-19 pandemic: an impact on school education in India: It is visible that the impact of the corona virus will tarry for years. India has already planned to teach the numbers of students at home owing to its very vast 4G network. In India, almost everywhere 4G connectivity is available at a very low cost. Due to powerful network connections, students can learn in the classroom environment as they are sitting directly in the classroom. Online teaching offers flexibility in teaching and learning and it also offers more tools and techniques for making the class motivating. The focus of online teaching is more on students and hence it promotes students centered learning instead of old teacher centred learning. Indian students, teachers and parents are not habitual of a virtual classroom. Traditional classroom was the only way of learning for them. But now suddenly Indians have to shift their traditional classes to online classes. Thus, the system is required to work on our teacher's training for online classrooms tool, so that they can teach the students more effectively and build our future generation. India was not prepared for these dramatic changes so it was a big challenge for our nation’s population. Thus depending upon the findings of the study it can be concluded that both male and female students, parents and teachers of institutes in the Udaipur district of Rajasthan consider online learning as an effective and most suitable tool in this lockdown time due to COVI-19 pandemic. CHAPTER:3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Methodology is the study of research methods, or, more formally, "'a contextual framework for research, a coherent and logical scheme based on views, beliefs, and values, that guides the choices researchers make" It comprises the theoretical analysis of the body of methods and principles associated with a branch of knowledge such that the methodologies employed from differing disciplines vary depending on their historical development. This creates a continuum of methodologies that stretch across competing understandings of how knowledge and reality are best understood. This situates methodologies within overarching philosophies and approaches. Methodology may be visualized as a spectrum from a predominantly quantitative approach towards a predominantly qualitative approach. Although a methodology may conventionally sit specifically 5 within one of these approaches, researchers may blend approaches in answering their research objectives and so have methodologies that are multi method and/or interdisciplinary. In general, a methodology proposes to provide solutions - therefore, the same as a method. Instead, a methodology offers a theoretical perspective for understanding which method, set of methods, or best practices can be applied to the research question(s) at hand Search methods Peer Reviewed Literature A search strategy was first developed in Medline and then adapted as needed across each database. The keywords set out in Table 1 were incorporated into the search along with related Me SH/subject headings; they are deliberately broad to reflect the scoping approach used to capture all of the different dimensions of the concept of vaccine hesitancy. Table 1 vaccin* anxiety doubt* trust intent* dilemma* attitude* distrust mistrust controvers*, objector* awareness dropout* Perception* misconception* uptake immunis* behavi*r exemption* refus* misinformation barrier* belief* fear* rejection opposition choice* immuniz* criticis* hesitanc* rumo*r delay mandator accept* concern* compulsory knowledge confidence decision anti-vaccin* parent* con* making anti Primary studies were identified using multidisciplinary mainstream and regional database searches (Table 2). Reference lists of relevant papers and reviews were manually searched. TABLE -2 ELECTRONIC DATABASES SEARCHED Database Date Search Last Run (2013) Medline 9 th October Embase Classic & Embase 9 th October PsychInfo 9 th October Cochrane 9 th October CINAHL Plus 9 th October Web of Science 9 th October IBSS 19th July LILACS 9 th October Africa WideInfo 9 th October IMEMR 10th October 6  Inclusion Criteria Articles that include research on the following: o Vaccine hesitancy, public trust/distrust, perceptions, concerns, confidence, attitudes, beliefs about vaccines and vaccination programmes by individuals (such as parents, health care workers), groups or communities Keywords: Strateg*, intervent*, campaign, evaluation, approach, program* in title or abstract Suggest/describe or evaluate an intervention addressing hesitancy Evaluated studies or reports needed to relate to primary and/or secondary outcomes of interest. Primary outcome indicated a change in behaviour (such as vaccination uptake/coverage) and secondary outcome indicated a change in knowledge/awareness or attitude Location: Global Publication Years: January 2007 - October 2013 Vaccine: All vaccines and vaccination programmes of communicable diseases. Concerns: All concerns Populations: All Languages: All six UN languages: Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish. Exclusion Criteria Not about vaccines Non-Human vaccines Vaccines not currently available, such as HIV vaccine Non-peer reviewed papers such as editorials, letters, comment/opinion, protocol (no data), pilot studies DATA FOR BCG VACCINE Certainly, the IB acillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG) vaccine, primarily used to prevent tuberculosis (TB), has been extensively researched and utilized globally. Here are some key points and data regarding the BCG vaccine: Efficacy and Effectiveness- The BCG vaccine is one of the most widely used vaccines worldwide, with a long history of use dating back to its development in the early 20th century. 7  While the BCG vaccine is most commonly associated with preventing TB, particularly severe forms of childhood TB such as miliary and meningeal TB, its efficacy in preventing pulmonary TB (the most common form of TB) varies widely across different populations and settings. Studies have shown that the BCG vaccine provides varying levels of protection against TB, ranging from 0% to 80%, with the highest efficacy observed in preventing severe forms of TB in children. Global Vaccination Coverage- The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends the BCG vaccine for infants in countries with a high TB burden or a high prevalence of TB infection. As of 2019, approximately 156 countries reported administering the BCG vaccine as part of their national immunization programs, with global coverage estimated at around 90% among newborns. However, there are disparities in BCG vaccination coverage across regions and countries, with lower coverage rates in some low- and middle-income countries due to challenges in healthcare access, supply chain management, and vaccine delivery. Impact on Childhood TB Mortality- The BCG vaccine has been credited with reducing childhood TB mortality and morbidity in countries where it is routinely administered as part of national immunization programs. Studies have shown that the BCG vaccine can provide protection against severe forms of TB, such as TB meningitis and disseminated TB, which are more common in children and carry higher mortality rates. The WHO estimates that the BCG vaccine prevents approximately 20% to 30% of TB cases in children and up to 50% of cases of TB meningitis and miliary TB. Challenges and Limitations- Despite its widespread use, the BCG vaccine has limitations, including variability in efficacy, waning immunity over time, and limited effectiveness against adult pulmonary TB, which accounts for the majority of TB cases globally. The BCG vaccine's effectiveness is influenced by factors such as strain variation, host immune response, and exposure to environmental mycobacteria. Efforts to improve the BCG vaccine's efficacy and develop new TB vaccines, including booster vaccines and recombinant vaccines, are ongoing to address these limitations. COVID-19 and BCG Vaccine- During the COVID-19 pandemic, there was interest in the potential non-specific effects of the BCG vaccine on the immune system, including its ability to enhance innate immunity and reduce respiratory infections. Several clinical trials were conducted to investigate whether the BCG vaccine could provide protection against COVID-19 or reduce the severity of symptoms, but results have been inconclusive, and the WHO does not recommend the use of BCG vaccination for the prevention of COVID-19. Overall, the BCG vaccine remains an essential tool in the global fight against TB, particularly in high-burden countries, but efforts to improve its efficacy, address limitations, and develop new TB vaccines are ongoing to achieve the goal of TB elimination. 8 DATA FOR DPT VACCINE The DPT vaccine, which stands for Diphtheria, Pertussis (whooping cough), and Tetanus, is a combination vaccine widely used to prevent these three infectious diseases. Here's some key information and data regarding the DPT vaccine: Vaccine Components- The DPT vaccine contains antigens for diphtheria toxoid, tetanus toxoid, and killed Bordetella pertussis bacteria. Diphtheria toxoid induces immunity against Corynebacterium diphtheriae, which causes diphtheria, a bacterial infection that affects the respiratory system. Tetanus toxoid provides immunity against Clostridium tetani, the bacterium responsible for tetanus, a severe and potentially fatal disease characterized by muscle stiffness and spasms. Pertussis antigens protect against Bordetella pertussis, the bacterium that causes whooping cough, a highly contagious respiratory disease marked by severe coughing fits. Vaccine Administration- The DPT vaccine is typically administered as a series of doses in infancy and early childhood to provide immunity against diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus. The vaccine is usually given as a combination vaccine, along with other childhood vaccines, such as the polio vaccine and the Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) vaccine, to reduce the number of injections needed. Vaccine Efficacy and Effectiveness- The DPT vaccine is highly effective in preventing diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis when administered according to recommended schedules. Studies have demonstrated that the DPT vaccine is effective in reducing the incidence of these diseases and their associated morbidity and mortality. Vaccination with the DPT vaccine has contributed to significant declines in diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis cases globally, particularly in countries with high vaccination coverage. lobal Vaccination Coverage- The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends the DPT vaccine as part of routine childhood immunization programs in all countries. As of 2019, global coverage with three doses of the DPT vaccine (DTP3) among infants was estimated at 86%, indicating high levels of vaccination coverage worldwide. However, there are disparities in DPT vaccination coverage across regions and countries, with lower coverage rates observed in some low- and middle-income countries due to challenges in healthcare access, vaccine supply, and delivery. Challenges and Adverse Events- While the DPT vaccine is generally safe and well-tolerated, like all vaccines, it can cause adverse reactions in some individuals. Common side effects of the DPT vaccine include local reactions such as pain, redness, and swelling at the injection site, as well as mild fever and irritability. 9  Rare but more severe adverse events, such as allergic reactions or neurological complications, may occur but are extremely rare. Booster Doses and Long-term Protection- Booster doses of the DPT vaccine may be recommended in adolescence or adulthood to maintain immunity against diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis. The duration of immunity provided by the DPT vaccine varies for each disease component, with tetanus immunity generally requiring booster doses every 10 years. Overall, the DPT vaccine is a crucial tool in preventing diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus and reducing the burden of these diseases globally. High vaccination coverage, continued surveillance, and efforts to address barriers to immunization are essential for maximizing the impact of the DPT vaccine in protecting public health. DATA FOR PENTAVALENT VACCINE The pentavalent vaccine is a combination vaccine that protects against five different diseases: diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis (whooping cough), Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib), and hepatitis B. Here's some key information and data regarding the pentavalent vaccine: Vaccine Components- The pentavalent vaccine contains antigens for diphtheria toxoid, tetanus toxoid, Bordetella pertussis, Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) polysaccharide conjugated to a carrier protein, and hepatitis B surface antigen. Diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis antigens provide immunity against these bacterial infections, while Hib and hepatitis B antigens protect against Haemophilus influenzae type b and hepatitis B virus infections, respectively. Vaccine Administration- The pentavalent vaccine is typically administered as a series of doses in infancy and early childhood, following a recommended schedule established by national immunization programs. The vaccine is given via intramuscular injection, usually in the thigh or upper arm. Vaccine Efficacy and Effectiveness- The pentavalent vaccine is highly effective in preventing diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, Hib, and hepatitis B infections when administered according to recommended schedules. Studies have demonstrated that the pentavalent vaccine is safe and well-tolerated, with high levels of efficacy in reducing the incidence of these diseases and their associated morbidity and mortality. Vaccination with the pentavalent vaccine has contributed to significant declines in diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, Hib, and hepatitis B cases globally, particularly in countries with high vaccination coverage. Global Vaccination Coverage- The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends the pentavalent vaccine as part of routine childhood immunization programs in all countries. 10  As of 2019, global coverage with three doses of the pentavalent vaccine (Penta3) among infants was estimated at 91%, indicating high levels of vaccination coverage worldwide. The pentavalent vaccine is typically administered alongside other routine childhood vaccines, such as the polio vaccine and the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine, to reduce the number of injections needed and improve vaccination coverage. Challenges and Adverse Events- While the pentavalent vaccine is generally safe and well-tolerated, like all vaccines, it can cause adverse reactions in some individuals. Common side effects of the pentavalent vaccine include local reactions such as pain, redness, and swelling at the injection site, as well as mild fever and irritability. Serious adverse events following pentavalent vaccination, such as allergic reactions or neurological complications, are rare but can occur. Booster Doses and Long-term Protection- Booster doses of specific vaccine components, such as diphtheria and tetanus toxoids, may be recommended in adolescence or adulthood to maintain immunity against these diseases. The duration of immunity provided by the pentavalent vaccine varies for each disease component, with some requiring booster doses to sustain long-term protection. Overall, the pentavalent vaccine is a crucial tool in preventing multiple infectious diseases and reducing the burden of morbidity and mortality in children globally. High vaccination coverage, continued surveillance, and efforts to address barriers to immunization are essential for maximizing the impact of the pentavalent vaccine in protecting public health. DATA ON MR VACCINE The MR vaccine is a combination vaccine that protects against two viral infections: measles and rubella. Here's some key information and data regarding the MR vaccine: Vaccine Components- The MR vaccine contains live attenuated viruses for measles and rubella. Measles is caused by the measles virus, while rubella (also known as German measles) is caused by the rubella virus. The MR vaccine provides immunity against both diseases, protecting individuals from measles and rubella infections. Vaccine Administration- The MR vaccine is typically administered as a single dose in childhood, usually between 9 and 15 months of age, depending on national immunization schedules. In some countries, a second dose of the MR vaccine is recommended to ensure long-term immunity and further reduce the risk of measles and rubella outbreaks. Vaccine Efficacy and Effectiveness- The MR vaccine is highly effective in preventing measles and rubella infections when administered according to recommended schedules. 11  Studies have demonstrated that a single dose of the MR vaccine provides high levels of protection against measles and rubella, with vaccine efficacy rates exceeding 90% for both diseases. Vaccination with the MR vaccine has led to significant reductions in measles and rubella cases and associated complications, such as encephalitis, pneumonia, congenital rubella syndrome, and measles-related deaths. Global Vaccination Coverage- The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends the MR vaccine as part of routine childhood immunization programs in all countries. As of 2019, global coverage with the first dose of the measles-containing vaccine (MCV1), which includes the MR vaccine, was estimated at 86%, indicating high levels of vaccination coverage worldwide. Efforts to increase vaccination coverage with the MR vaccine, particularly in countries with low immunization rates, are essential for achieving measles and rubella elimination goals set by the WHO. Challenges and Adverse Events- While the MR vaccine is generally safe and well-tolerated, like all vaccines, it can cause adverse reactions in some individuals. Common side effects of the MR vaccine include mild fever, rash, and transient joint pain, which typically resolve without complications. Serious adverse events following MR vaccination, such as allergic reactions or anaphylaxis, are rare but can occur. Measles and Rubella Elimination Efforts- The MR vaccine plays a crucial role in global efforts to eliminate measles and rubella as public health threats. Measles and rubella elimination strategies include achieving high vaccination coverage with the MR vaccine, implementing surveillance systems to detect and respond to outbreaks, and providing supplementary immunization activities in high-risk populations. The introduction of the MR vaccine has led to significant progress towards measles and rubella elimination goals in many regions, but ongoing efforts are needed to sustain progress and address remaining challenges. Overall, the MR vaccine is a vital tool in preventing measles and rubella infections, reducing the burden of disease, and protecting public health. High vaccination coverage, continued surveillance, and efforts to address barriers to immunization are essential for maximizing the impact of the MR vaccine in achieving measles and rubella elimination goals globally. DATA ON POLIO VACCINE The polio vaccine is a critical tool in the global effort to eradicate polio, a highly infectious viral disease that primarily affects young children. Here's some key information and data regarding the polio vaccine: 12 Types of Polio Vaccine- There are two main types of polio vaccines: the inactivated polio vaccine (IPV) and the oral polio vaccine (OPV). IPV is an injectable vaccine made from inactivated (killed) poliovirus strains and is primarily used in countries where wild poliovirus transmission has been interrupted. OPV is an oral vaccine containing live attenuated (weakened) poliovirus strains and is used in routine immunization programs and polio eradication campaigns worldwide. Vaccine Components- Both IPV and OPV protect against all three serotypes of the poliovirus: poliovirus type 1 (PV1), poliovirus type 2 (PV2), and poliovirus type 3 (PV3). IPV contains killed poliovirus strains of all three serotypes and is administered as an injection into the muscle. OPV contains live attenuated poliovirus strains and is administered orally, typically in the form of drops. Vaccine Administration- IPV is typically administered as a series of doses in infancy and childhood, with booster doses recommended in adolescence and adulthood. OPV is administered as part of routine childhood immunization schedules and supplemental immunization activities (SIAs) during polio eradication campaigns. Both IPV and OPV provide immunity against poliovirus infection, protecting individuals from paralysis and death caused by polio. Global Polio Eradication Efforts- The Global Polio Eradication Initiative (GPEI), launched in 1988, is a public-private partnership aimed at eradicating polio worldwide. Since the launch of GPEI, global polio cases have declined by over 99%, from an estimated 350,000 cases in 1988 to just 33 reported cases in 2018. OPV has been the primary vaccine used in polio eradication efforts due to its ease of administration, ability to induce intestinal immunity, and effectiveness in interrupting poliovirus transmission in communities. Challenges and Strategies- Despite significant progress, challenges remain in achieving polio eradication, including vaccine- derived poliovirus (VDPV) outbreaks, gaps in vaccination coverage, and access issues in conflict-affected and hard-to-reach areas. Strategies to address these challenges include strengthening routine immunization programs, conducting mass vaccination campaigns, enhancing surveillance systems to detect and respond to polio outbreaks, and addressing community mistrust and vaccine hesitancy. Role of IPV and OPV- Both IPV and OPV play complementary roles in polio eradication efforts, with IPV used to maintain population immunity in countries where wild poliovirus transmission has been interrupted and OPV used for outbreak response and SIAs in high-risk areas. 13  The switch from trivalent OPV (tOPV) to bivalent OPV (bOPV), which targets only types 1 and 3 poliovirus, has helped mitigate the risk of type 2 circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus (cVDPV) outbreaks following the global withdrawal of type 2 OPV in 2016. Overall, the polio vaccine, whether IPV or OPV, is a crucial tool in the global effort to eradicate polio and protect future generations from this devastating disease. Continued commitment, funding, and collaboration are essential to achieving the goal of polio eradication and ensuring a polio-free world. SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING It is one in which each element of the population has an equal and independent chance of being included in the sample i.e. a sample selected by randomization method is known as simple random sample and this technique is simple randomizing. Randomization is done by using the following techniques: a. Tossing a coin b. Throwing a dice c. Lottery method d. Blind folded method b. Tippett’s table method Merits of Randomization: 1. It requires the minimum knowledge of population. 2. It is free from subjectivity and free from personal error. 3. It provides appropriate data for one’s purpose. 4. The observations of the sample can be used for inferential purpose Demerits of Randomization: 1. It cannot ensure the representativeness of a sample. 2. It does not use the knowledge about the population. 3. Its inferential accuracy depends upon the size of the sample. SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING 14 Systematic sampling is an improvement over the Merits: 1. This is a simple method of selecting a sample. 2. It reduces the field cost. 3. Inferential statistics may be used. 4. Sample may be comprehensive and representative of population. 5. Observations of the sample may be used for drawing conclusions and generalizations. Demerits: 1. This is not free from error, since there is subjectivity due to different ways of systematic list by different individuals. 2. Knowledge of population is essential. 3. Information of each individual is essential. 4. This method can’t ensure the representativeness. 5. There is a risk in drawing conclusions from the observations of the sample. STRATIFIED SAMPLING: It is an improvement over the earlier methods. When we employ this technique, the researcher divides his population into strata on the basis of some characteristics and from each of these smaller homogenous groups (strata) draws at random a predetermined number of units. Researcher should choose that characteristic as criterion which seems to be more relevant in his research work. Stratified sampling may be of three types; a. Disproportionate :- Means that the size of the sample in each unit is not proportionate to the size of the unit but depends upon considerations involving personal judgment and convenience. This method of sampling is more effective for comparing strata which have different error possibilities. It is less efficient for determining population characteristics. b. Proportionate :- It refers to the selection from each sampling unit of a sample that is proportionate to the size of the unit. Advantages of this procedure includes representativeness with respect to variables used as the basis of classifying categories and increased chances of being able to make comparisons between strata. Lack of information on proportion of the population in each category and faulty classification may be listed as disadvantages of this method. c. Optimum allocation :- Stratified sampling is representative as well as comprehensive than other stratified samples. It refers to selecting units from each stratum. Each stratum should be in proportion to the corresponding stratum the population. Thus sample obtained is known as optimum allocation sample. Merits: i. It is a good representative of the population. ii. It is an improvement over the earlier technique of sampling. iii. It is an objective method of sampling. iv. Observations can be used for inferential purpose. 15 Demerits: i. Serious disadvantage of this method is that it is difficult for the researcher to decide the relevant criterion for stratification. ii. Only one criterion can be used for stratification, but generally it seems more than one criterion relevant for stratification. iii. It is costly and time consuming method. iv. Selected samples may be representative with reference to the used criterion but not for the other. v. There is a risk of generalization. Multiple or Double Repetitive Sampling: Generally this is not a new method but only a new application of the samplings. This is most frequently used for establishing the reliability of a sample. When employing a mailed questionnaire, double sampling is sometimes used to obtain a more representative sample. This is done because some randomly selected subjects who are sent questionnaires may not return them. Obviously, the missing data will bias the result of the study, if the people who fail to reply the query differ in some fundamental way from the others in respect to the phenomenon being studied. To eliminate this bias, a selected sample may be drawn at random from the non-respondents and the people interviewed To obtain the desired information. Thus this technique is also known as repeated or multiple sampling. This double sampling technique enables one to check on the reliability of the information obtained from first sample. Thus, double sampling, where in one sample is analyzed and information obtained is used to draw the next sample to examine the problem further. Merits: i. Thus sampling procedure leads to the inferences of free determine precision based on a number of observations. ii. This technique of sampling reduces the error. iii. This method maintains the procedure of the finding evaluate the reliability of the sample. Demerits: i. This technique of sampling cannot be used for a large sample. It is applicable only for small sample. ii. This technique is time consuming and costly. iii. Its planning and administration is more complicated. Multi Stage Sampling: This sample is more comprehensive and representative of the population. In this type of sampling primary sample units are inclusive groups and secondary units are sub-groups within these ultimate units to be selected which belong to one and only one group. Stages of a population are usually available within a group or population, whenever stratification is done by the researcher. The individuals are selected from different stages for constituting the multi stage sampling. 16 Merits: i. It is a good representative of the population. ii. Multistage sampling is an improvement over the earlier methods. iii. It is an objective procedure of sampling. iv. The observations from multi stage sample may be used for inferential purpose. Demerits: i. It is a difficult and complex method of sampling. ii. It involves errors when we consider the primary stages. iii. It is again a subjective technique of sampling. Cluster Sampling: To select the intact group as a whole is known as a cluster sampling. In cluster sampling the sample units contain groups of element (cluster) instead of individual members or items in the population. Rather than listing all elementary school children in a given city and randomly selecting 15 % of these students for the sample, a researcher lists all of the elementary schools in the city, selects at random 15 % of these clusters of units, and uses all of the children in the selected schools as the sample. Merits: i. It may be a good representative of the population. ii. It is an easy method. iii. It is an economical method. iv. It is practicable and highly applicable in education. v. Observations can be used for inferential purpose. Demerits: i. Cluster sampling is not free from errors. ii. It is not comprehensive NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHOD: Samples which are selected through non-random methods are called non probability samples. Depending upon the technique used it may be; INCIDENTAL OR ACCIDENTAL SAMPLING: The term incidental or accidental applied to those samples that are taken because they are most frequently available i.e. this refers to the groups which are used as samples of a population because they are readily available or because the researcher is unable to employ more acceptable sampling methods. Merits: i. It is very easy method of sampling. ii. It is frequently used method in behavioural sciences. iii. It reduces the time, money and energy i.e. it is an economical method. 17 Demerits: i. It is not representative of the population. ii. It is not free from errors. iii. Parametric statistics cannot be used JUDGMENT SAMPLING This involves the selection of a group from the population on the basis of available information assuming as if they are representative of the entire population. Here group may also be selected on the basis of intuition or on the basis of the criterion deemed to be self-evident. Generally investigator should take the judgment sample so this sampling is highly risky. Merits: i. Knowledge of investigator can be best used in this technique of sampling. ii. This method of sampling is economical. Demerits: i. This technique is object!ve. ii. It is not free from errors. iii. It includes uncontrolled variation. iv. Inferential statistics cannot be used for the observation of this sampling, so generalization is not possible. PURPOSIVE SAMPLING The purposive sampling is selected by some arbitrary method because it is known to be representative of the total population, or it is known that it will produce well matched groups. The idea is to pick out the sample in relation to criterion which are considered important for the particular study. This method is appropriate when the study places special emphasis upon the control of certain specific variables. Merits: i. Use the best available knowledge concerning the sample subjects. ii. Better control of significant variables. iii. Sample groups data can be easily matched. iv. Homogeneity of subjects used in the sample. Demerits: i. Reliability of the criterion is questionable. ii. Knowledge of population is essential. iii. Errors in classifying sampling subjects. iv. Inability to utilize the inferential parametric statistics. v. Inability to make generalization concerning total population. 18 QUOTA SAMPLING This combines both judgment sampling and probability sampling: on the basis of judgment or assumption or the previous knowledge, the proportion of population falling into each category is decided. Thereafter a quota of cases to be drawn is fixed and the observer is allowed to sample as he likes. Quota sampling is very arbitrary and likely to figure in municipal surveys. Merits: i. It is an improvement over the judgment sampling. ii. It is an easy sampling technique. iii. It is not frequently used in social surveys. Demerits: i. It is not a representative sample. ii. It is not free from errors. iii. It has the influence of regional, geographical and social factors. SNOWBALL SAMPLING The term; snow ball sampling’ has been used to describe a sampling procedure in which the sample goes on becoming bigger and bigger as the observation or study proceeds. The term snowball stems from the analogy of a snowball sample which would allow computation of estimates of sampling error and use of statistical test of significance. For example, an opinion survey is to be conducted on smokers of a particular brand of cigarette. At the first stage, we may pick up a few people who are known to us or can be identified to be the smokers of that brand. At the time of interviewing them, we may obtain the names of other persons known to the first stage subjects. Thus the subjects go on serving an informant for the identification of more subjects and the sample goes on increasing Merit: Snowball sampling which is generally considered to be non-probabilistic can be converted into probabilistic by selecting subjects randomly within each stage. Demerits: Sampling errors may creep in. PURPOSIVE OR EXPERT CHOICE SAMPLING Samples are sometimes expressly chosen because, in the light of available information, these mirror some larger group with reference to one or more given characteristics. The controls in such samples are usually identified as representative areas (city, country, state, district), representative characteristics of individuals (age, sex, marital status, socio-economic status, race) or types of groups (administrator, counselors, teachers etc.). These controls may be further sub-divided by specified categories within classes such as amount of training, years of experience or attitudes towards a specific phenomenon. Up-to this stage, these controls are somewhat similar to those used in satisfaction. Purposive sampling differs from 19 stratified random sampling in that the actual selection of the units to be included in the sample in each group is done purposively rather than by random method The third part of a research proposal is statement of Hypotheses. It is done more sophistically than the statement of problem. The research hypothesis is presented in an affirmative form rather than in the interrogative form. They state what is expected to occur if various conditions are evoked or presumed. The researcher should review the related literature thoroughly before formulating hypotheses. All the terms which are used in any hypothesis should be carefully defined. The hypothesis should be unambiguous and testable. Since the quantum of achievement is difficult to predict at the time of statement of hypothesis, researchers prefer ‘null hypothesis’ which assumes that only a chance difference is expected to occur between the groups.A null hypothesis merely states that there is no relationship between the variables. It is expressed in statistical terms; Xa-Xb=0. Suppose a researcher observed that Mr.X appeared to have better teacher-student relation that Mr.Y. It was observed that Mr.X used to discuss personal problems of the students and find out their solutions while Mr.Y used to have only formal relationship of classroom teaching. The researcher formulated the following problem. “What are the effects of discussion of personal problems of the students on the teacher-student relationship”? The problem statement could be written as substantive hypothesis in the following words; “The discussion of personal problems of the students will have better teacher-student relationship than not having any such discussion.” This hypothesis can be written as null hypothesis in the following form; “Discussion of personal problems of the students by the teachers with them and no discussion will have no differential effect upon the teacher-student relationship.” The following criteria should be used for the formulation of testable and significant hypothesis; (i) The hypothesis must be clearly stated in operational terms. (ii) The hypothesis must be specific and testable. (iii) Research problems should be selected which are directly related to previous research or theoretical formulations. PROCEDURES: The fourth part of a research proposal is called procedures. It is also called as ‘Methodology’ and ‘Method of Procedure.’ It comprises of the following; TARGET POPULATION It is also called universe. The salient characteristics of the population should be thoroughly described so that it should be definite that what is the target population for which sample is to be drawn and to which the results of the study could be generalized. SAMPLING PLAN The method of sampling should be specified in the research proposal. If the sample is not thoroughly analyzed and precisely described, faulty generalizations may be made. The sample should be made the true representative of the population. The sampling plan should also be described in the proposal. It should describe how the units in the target population will be selected and used. A good sampling plan should meet the following criteria; 20  a. Obtaining or constructing an accurate, current list of the target population units. b. Method of drawing the sample. c. Number of subjects or population units to be selected RESEARCH DESIGN Research design should indicate how the research setting will be arranged in order to yield the desired data with the least possible contamination/ error by intervening variables. There is no single design that can be applied in all the cases. It depends upon individual researcher to devise his design. The design should ensure the answer of every hypothesis designed in the proposed research work. A well prepared research design should contain the following characteristics; a. Specifications of its relationship to each research hypothesis. b. Description of the methods of proposed control of confounding variables and threats to validity. c. Description of the design in statistical terms. d. Identification of the types of interferences that may be made. STIMULUS MATERIALS It should also be specified in the research proposal that what stimulus materials will be used in the study. Kinds and ways of stimuli should be described. Most commonly used stimuli are printed instructional materials. Instructional materials should include the following elements; a. Title b. Author/Editor c. Publisher d. Year of publication e. Intended population f. Time required for administration g. Cost of material RESPONSE MEASURES The researcher should specify clearly what raw data are required by the research design and how they will be collected. Each instrument should be described including the following items of information: a. Title b. Author/Editor c. Publisher d. Population e. Forms f. Test Objectives g. Description of test ,items, scoring procedures h. Traits represented in score i. Predictive / Concurrent validity j. Reliability data k. Normative data 21  l. Internal consistency of tests m. Time required for administration n. Cost of material o. Data of publication TYPES OF RESEARCH There are varieties of ways through which we may classify it into different categories. A. On the basis of nature of information: On the basis of nature of information we can classify the research into two types; i. Qualitative Research: When information is in the form of qualitative data. ii. Quantitative Research: When information is in the form of quantitative data. B. On the basis of utility of content or nature of subject matter of research: On the basis of these criteria we can categorize the research into two categories. i. Basic/ Fundamental /pure or Theoretical Research: Its utility is universal. ii. Experimental or Applied Research: Its utility is limited. C. On the basis of approach of research: We may classify research into two different categories. i. Longitudinal Research: Examples of this category are historical, Case study and Genetic research. ii. Cross-Sectional Research: Examples of this category are Experimental and Survey Research. D. On the basis of method of research : On the basis of research method we may classify a research into five different categories. i. Philosophical Research: It is purely qualitative in nature and we are focusing on the vision of others on the content of research. ii. Historical Research: It is both qualitative as well as quantitative in nature and deals with past events. iii. Survey Research: It deals with present events and is quantitative in nature. It may further be sub-divided into; discretional, correlational and exploratory type of research. iv. Experimental Research: This is purely quantitative in nature and deals with future events. v. Case-Study Research: It deals with unusual events. It may be qualitative as well as quantitative in nature depending upon the content CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS Data analysis embraces a whole range of activities of both the qualitative and quantitative type. It is usual tendency in behavioral research that much use of quantative analysis is made and statistical methods and techniques are employed. The statistical methods and techniques are employed. The statistical methods and techniques have got a special position in research because they provide answers to the problems. Kaul defines data analysis as, ’’Studying the organized material in order to discover inherent facts. The data are studied from as many angles as possible to explore the new facts.” PURPOSE: The following are the main purposes of data analysis: I. Description: 22  It involves a set of activities that are as essential first step in the development of most fields. A researcher must be able to identify a topic about which much was not known; he must be able to convince others about its importance and must be able to collect data. II. Construction of Measurement Scale: The researcher should construct a measurement scale. All numbers generated by measuring Instruments can be placed into one of four categories: 9 71 a. Nominal :- The number serves as nothing more than labels. For example no 1 was not less than no 2.Similarly no 2 was neither more than no 1 and nor less than no 3. b. Ordinal :- Such numbers are used to designate an ordering along some dimensions such as from less to more, from small to large, from sooner to later. c. Interval :- The interval provides more precised information than ordinal one. By this type of measurement the researcher can make exact and meaningful decisions. For example if A,B and C are of 150 cm, 145cm and 140 cm height, the researcher can say that A is 5 cm taller than B and B is 5 cm taller than C. d. Ratio Scale :- It has two unique characteristics. The intervals between points can be demonstrated to be precisely the same and the scale has a conceptually meaningful zero point. III. Generating empirical relationships:- Another purpose of analysis of data is identification of regularities and relationships among data. The researcher has no clear idea about the relationship which will be found from the collected data. If the data were available in details it will be easier to determine the relationship. The researcher can develop theories if he is able to recognize pattern and order of data. The pattern may be showing association among variables, which may be done by calculating correlation among variables or showing order, precedence or priority. The derivation of empirical laws may be made in the form of simple equations relating one interval or ratio scaled variable to a few others through graph methods. IV. Explanation and prediction :- Generally knowledge and research are equated with the identification of causal relationships and all research activities are directed to it. But in many fields the research has not been developed to the level where 72 causal explanation is possible or valid predictions can be made. In such a situation explanation and prediction is construct as enabling the values of one set of variables to be derived given the values of another. FUNCTIONS: The following are the main functions of data analysis: (iv) The researcher should analyze the available data for examining the statement of the problem. (v) The researcher should analyze the available data for examining each hypothesis of the problem. (vi) The researcher should study the original records of the data before data analysis. (vii) The researcher should analyze the data for thinking about the research problem in lay man’s term. (viii) The researcher should analyze the data by attacking it through statistical calculations. (ix) The researcher should think in terms of significant tables that the available data permits for the analysis of data. 23  STATISTICAL CALCULATIONS: The researcher will have to use either descriptive statistics or inferential statistics for the purpose of the analysis. (i) The descriptive statistics may be on any of the following forms: a. Measures of Central Tendency :- These measures are mean, median, mode geometric mean and harmonic mean. In behavioral statistics the last two measures are not used. Which of the first three will be used in social statistics depends upon the nature of the problem b. Measures of Variability :- These measures are range, mean deviation, quartile deviation and standard deviation. In social statistics the first two measures are rarely used. The use of standard deviation is very frequently made for the purpose of analysis. c. Measures of Relative Position :- These measures are standard scores (Z or T scores), percentiles and percentile ranks.All of them are used in educational statistics for data analysis. d. Measures of Relationship :- There measures are Co-efficient of Correlation, partial correlation and multiple correlations. All of them are used in educational statistics for the analysis of data. However the use of rank method is made more in comparison to Karl Pearson method. (ii) The inferential statistics may be in any one of the following forms:- a. Significance of Difference between Means: It is used to determine whether a true difference exists between population means of two samples. b. Analysis of Variance: The Z or t tests are used to determine whether there was any significant difference between the means of two random samples. The F test enables the researcher to determine whether the sample means differ from one another to a greater extent then the test scores differ from their own sample means using the F ratio c. Analysis of Co-Variance: It is an extension of analysis of variance to test the significance of difference between means of final experimental data by taking into account the Correlation between the dependent variable and one or more Co-variates or control variables and by adjusting initial mean differences in the group. d. Correlation Methods: Either of two methods of correlation can be used for the purpose of calculating the significance of the difference between Co-efficient of Correlation. e. Chi Square Test: It is used to estimate the like hood that some factor other than chance accounts to the observed relationship. In this test the expected frequency and observed frequency are used for evaluating Chi Square. f. Regression Analysis: For calculating the probability of occurrence of any phenomenon or for predicting the phenomenon or relationship between different variables regression analysis is cone. 1. CONSIDERED COVID 19 AS A PANDEMIC : Table no- 1 Consider Covid 19 as a No. of respondents Percentage (%) pandemic YES 25 82 NO 5 18 TOTAL 30 100 24 It is seen from the above table that 25 respondent thinks that Covid 19 is a Pandemic. That means 83% of total respondents consider covid19 as pandemic. 5 respondents do not think Covid 19 as Pandemic. That means 16% of total respondents consider covid19 as not pandemic. 2. SYMPTOMS OF THIS DISEASE KNOWN BY RESPONDENTS. Table no -2 Symptoms (yes/no) Percentage (%) No. of respondents YES 21 70 NO 9 30 TOTAL 30 100 From the above table it is clear that 70% of the total respondent know about the symptoms of this disease. And 30% of respondent found who don’t know about the Symptoms of covid 19. 3. COVID 19 DETECTED WITH ANY FAMILY MEMBER OR RELATIVES OR NEIGHBORS : Table no-3 Covid detection Percentage (%) No. of respondents YES 22 73 NO 8 27 TOTAL 30 100 It is seen from the above table 26% of respondents said that, Covid 19 was not detected in their family member, Relatives or with their Neighbors. 73% of respondent said that Covid 19 was detected in their family member, Relatives or with their Neighbors. 4. RESPONDENTS THAT KNOW THE PLACE WHERE COVID 19 VIRUS FOUND FOR FIRST TIME : Table-4 Respondent who know the No. of respondents Percentage (%) place of origine of covid- 19 YES 22 73 NO 8 27 TOTAL 30 100 The above table shows that 16% of total respondent who don’t know about the place. And 83% of respondent who know about the origin place of covid-19 5. ANSWER ON ANY EXACT MEDICINE FOUND FOR THE DISEASE BY RESPONDENT : 25 Table no-5 Respondent knows Percentage (%) about covid-19 drug No. of respondents YES 15 50 NO 15 50 TOTAL 30 100 The above table shows that 50% of total respondent said that the exact medicine was not found. And 50% of total respondent said that the exact medicine was found. 6. RESPONDENTS TAKE MEASURES TO AVOID THIS DISEASE : Table no-6 Percentage (%) Respondent take measures No. of respondents YES 30 100 NO 0 0 TOTAL 30 100 From the above table, it is seen that 100% of the respondents take measures to avoid this disease. 7. DURING PANDEMIC PERIOD TAKING ONLINE CLASSES OF RESPONDENTS: Table no-7 Take online classes during Percentage (%) pandemic period No. of respondents YES 26 87 NO 4 13 TOTAL 30 100 From the above table, it is clear that 87% of total respondents who take online classes and 13% of respondents don’t take online classes. 8. STUDENTS WHO CONVENIENT TO TAKE ONLINE CLASSES DURING THE COVID19 PANDEMIC PERIOD: Table no-8 Students who feel No. of respondents Percentage (%) convenient to take online classes YES 19 63 NO 11 37 TOTAL 30 100 The above table shows that 63% of respondents said that online classes were convenient for them. 36% of respondents said that online classes were not convenient for them due to various problems. 26 9. CONCEPT UNDERSTANDING STUDENTS DURING THE ONLINE CLASS: Table-9 Understand the concept Percentage (%) No. of respondents YES 23 77 NO 7 23 TOTAL 30 100 From the above table, it is clear that 77% of total respondents understand everything about their course matter. And 23% respondents don’t understand everything their courses. 10. NUMBER OF STUDENTS CLASSES TAKEN REGULARLY DURING PANDEMIC : Table no: 10 Regular students Percentage (%) No. of respondents YES 10 33 NO 20 67 TOTAL 30 100 The above table shows that 33% of respondents said that their classes were taken regularly. 67% of respondents replied that their classes were not taken regularly during pandemic period. CHAPTER 5: FINDINGS, SUGGESTIONS, RECOMMENDATION Certainly, let's explore the role of illiteracy, lack of awareness, lack of communication, and poverty in vaccine hesitancy in India: Illiteracy- Illiteracy significantly contributes to vaccine hesitancy as individuals who are unable to read or understand health information may not comprehend the importance of vaccines or the risks associated with vaccine-preventable diseases. Illiterate individuals may also be more susceptible to misinformation and rumors circulating within their communities, leading to distrust in vaccines and healthcare providers. Certainly, let's delve deeper into the role of illiteracy in vaccine hesitancy in India with detailed analysis and data: Impact of Illiteracy on Vaccine Hesitancy- Illiteracy significantly affects individuals' understanding of health-related information, including the importance of vaccines and the risks associated with vaccine-preventable diseases. Illiterate individuals may lack the ability to read vaccine-related materials, such as pamphlets, posters, or educational materials, which are commonly used for health promotion and awareness campaigns. Limited literacy skills can hinder comprehension of vaccination schedules, informed consent forms, and other essential documents related to immunization, leading to uncertainty and reluctance to receive vaccines. 27 Data on Illiteracy in India- According to the Census of India 2011, the overall literacy rate in India was 74.04%, with significant variations across states and regions. Rural areas tend to have lower literacy rates compared to urban areas, with disparities particularly pronounced among marginalized communities such as Dalits, Adivasis, and women. The Annual Health Survey (AHS) conducted by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare provides data on literacy rates at the district level, highlighting areas with the highest prevalence of illiteracy. Illiteracy and Vaccine Coverage Disparities- Studies have shown a correlation between illiteracy and lower vaccine coverage rates in India. Communities with higher illiteracy rates tend to have lower immunization coverage, contributing to vaccine-preventable disease outbreaks. A study published in the Indian Journal of Community Medicine found that illiteracy was a significant predictor of incomplete immunization among children in rural Uttar Pradesh, one of India's most populous states. Challenges Faced by Illiterate Individuals- Illiterate individuals may rely on word-of-mouth information and community perceptions, which can be influenced by misinformation and rumors about vaccines. Lack of access to accurate health information exacerbates vaccine hesitancy, as illiterate individuals may not have alternative sources to verify the reliability of information. Inadequate communication between healthcare providers and illiterate patients further compounds the problem, leading to misunderstandings and mistrust in the healthcare system. Addressing Illiteracy-related Vaccine Hesitancy Tailored communication strategies are essential to reach illiterate populations effectively. This may include using pictorial aids, verbal instructions, and community-based outreach programs. Training healthcare workers to communicate effectively with illiterate individuals and providing culturally sensitive education materials in local languages can improve vaccine acceptance and uptake. Collaborative efforts involving government agencies, NGOs, and community leaders are crucial for implementing literacy programs and promoting health literacy among marginalized populations. By recognizing the impact of illiteracy on vaccine hesitancy and implementing targeted interventions, India can enhance vaccine acceptance and coverage rates, ultimately reducing the burden of vaccine-preventable diseases and improving public health outcomes. Lack of Awareness- Many communities in India, especially in rural areas, lack awareness about the importance of vaccines and the benefits of immunization. Lack of awareness about the availability of vaccines, their schedule, and the diseases they prevent can lead to underutilization of vaccination services. 28  Inadequate health education programs and limited access to accurate information exacerbate this issue, leaving communities vulnerable to vaccine-preventable diseases. Certainly, let's explore the role of lack of awareness in vaccine hesitancy in India with detailed analysis and data: Impact of Lack of Awareness on Vaccine Hesitancy- Lack of awareness about vaccines and their benefits contributes significantly to vaccine hesitancy in India. Many individuals and communities may not fully understand the importance of vaccination in preventing infectious diseases and promoting public health. Lack of awareness can lead to misconceptions, fears, and doubts about the safety and efficacy of vaccines, which can deter people from seeking immunization for themselves and their families. Data on Lack of Awareness in India- Surveys and studies conducted in India highlight gaps in knowledge and awareness regarding vaccines and immunization. The National Family Health Survey (NFHS) and District Level Household and Facility Survey (DLHS) provide valuable data on vaccination coverage and awareness at the national and state levels. According to the NFHS-4 (2015-16), only 62% of children aged 12-23 months in India were fully immunized, indicating gaps in vaccine coverage and awareness. Factors Contributing to Lack of Awareness- Limited access to accurate information about vaccines and immunization schedules is a significant factor contributing to lack of awareness. Inadequate health education programs, especially in rural and underserved areas, fail to disseminate essential information about vaccines and their benefits. Misinformation and rumors circulating through social networks and media platforms can exacerbate confusion and distrust, further undermining awareness efforts. Challenges Faced by Lack of Awareness- Lack of awareness about vaccines can result in delayed or missed vaccinations, leaving individuals and communities vulnerable to vaccine-preventable diseases. Cultural beliefs, religious practices, and societal norms may influence perceptions of vaccines, leading to resistance or reluctance to accept immunization. Language barriers and low health literacy levels pose additional challenges in effectively communicating vaccine-related information to diverse populations. Addressing Lack of Awareness-related Vaccine Hesitancy- Comprehensive health education campaigns are essential for raising awareness about vaccines and dispelling myths and misconceptions. Targeted communication strategies should be tailored to specific demographic groups, taking into account cultural sensitivities and linguistic diversity. Engaging community leaders, healthcare providers, and local influencers can enhance the reach and impact of awareness initiatives. 29  Leveraging digital platforms and social media for disseminating accurate information and countering misinformation is increasingly important in the digital age. By addressing the lack of awareness surrounding vaccines through targeted education and communication efforts, India can improve vaccine acceptance and coverage rates, ultimately reducing the burden of vaccine-preventable diseases and promoting public health. Lack of Communication- Poor communication between healthcare providers and communities contributes to vaccine hesitancy. Ineffective communication strategies fail to address concerns and misconceptions about vaccines, leading to mistrust among the population. Language barriers, particularly in regions with diverse linguistic backgrounds, hinder effective communication efforts, making it difficult to convey accurate information about vaccines and their importance. Certainly, let's explore the role of lack of communication in vaccine hesitancy in India, supported by detailed analysis and data: Impact of Lack of Communication on Vaccine Hesitancy- Lack of effective communication between healthcare providers and communities contributes significantly to vaccine hesitancy in India. Inadequate or ineffective communication strategies fail to address concerns, misconceptions, and fears about vaccines, leading to mistrust and reluctance among the population. Poor communication can result in misunderstandings, misinformation, and rumors circulating within communities, further undermining confidence in vaccination. Data on Lack of Communication in India- Studies and surveys conducted in India highlight the importance of communication in shaping vaccine acceptance and coverage. The National Family Health Survey (NFHS) and other national and state-level health surveys provide valuable insights into communication gaps and challenges in vaccine uptake. According to the NFHS-4 (2015-16), communication barriers were cited as one of the factors contributing to low vaccination coverage among children aged 12-23 months. Factors Contributing to Lack of Communication- Language barriers pose a significant challenge in effective communication between healthcare providers and diverse linguistic communities in India. Limited health literacy levels among certain population groups hinder understanding and comprehension of vaccine-related information. Cultural differences, social norms, and religious beliefs may influence communication dynamics, making it challenging to convey messages about vaccines effectively. Challenges Faced by Lack of Communication- Limited access to healthcare facilities and trained healthcare providers in rural and remote areas exacerbates communication challenges. Health workers may lack the necessary training or resources to communicate effectively with patients and address their concerns about vaccines. 30  Misinformation spread through word of mouth, social media, and other channels can undermine communication efforts and perpetuate vaccine hesitancy. Addressing Lack of Communication-related Vaccine Hesitancy- Strengthening communication channels between healthcare providers, communities, and policymakers is crucial for addressing vaccine hesitancy. Training healthcare workers in effective communication techniques and cultural competency can enhance their ability to engage with diverse populations. Utilizing community health workers and frontline workers as trusted sources of information can improve outreach and communication at the grassroots level. Developing culturally sensitive and linguistically appropriate communication materials can facilitate better understanding and acceptance of vaccines among different demographic groups. By addressing the lack of communication surrounding vaccines through targeted training, resource allocation, and community engagement, India can improve vaccine acceptance and coverage rates, ultimately reducing the burden of vaccine-preventable diseases and promoting public health. Poverty- Poverty plays a significant role in vaccine hesitancy as impoverished communities often face barriers to accessing healthcare services, including vaccinations. Financial constraints, transportation costs, and the need to prioritize basic necessities over preventive healthcare can deter individuals from seeking vaccination for themselves and their families. Lack of infrastructure in remote and underserved areas further exacerbates the problem, limiting access to healthcare facilities and vaccination clinics. Certainly, let's explore the role of poverty in vaccine hesitancy in India, supported by detailed analysis and data: Impact of Poverty on Vaccine Hesitancy- Poverty significantly influences vaccine hesitancy in India by creating barriers to accessing healthcare services, including vaccinations. Economic constraints, lack of financial resources, and competing priorities for basic necessities can deter individuals and families from seeking vaccination. Poverty exacerbates existing disparities in healthcare access and utilization, disproportionately affecting marginalized and underserved communities. Data on Poverty in India- India is home to a significant proportion of the world's poor, with a large population living below the poverty line. According to the World Bank, as of 2020, over 20% of India's population lived below the national poverty line. Poverty rates vary across states and regions, with higher levels of poverty observed in rural areas and among certain social groups such as Dalits, Adivasis, and marginalized communities. 31 Factors Contributing to Poverty-related Vaccine Hesitancy- Financial constraints pose a major barrier to accessing healthcare services, including vaccinations, for impoverished individuals and families. Direct and indirect costs associated with vaccination, such as transportation expenses, lost wages, and foregone income, can deter people from seeking immunization. Limited healthcare infrastructure and inadequate availability of free or subsidized vaccines in remote and underserved areas further exacerbate vaccine hesitancy among the poor. Challenges Faced by Poverty-related Vaccine Hesitancy- Poverty-related vaccine hesitancy perpetuates health inequities and exacerbates the burden of vaccine-preventable diseases, particularly among vulnerable populations. Lack of awareness and health literacy among impoverished communities can compound vaccine hesitancy, as individuals may not fully understand the importance of immunization or the risks of vaccine-preventable diseases. Socioeconomic factors intertwined with poverty, such as overcrowded living conditions, malnutrition, and limited access to clean water and sanitation, increase susceptibility to infectious diseases, further underscoring the importance of vaccination. Addressing Poverty-related Vaccine Hesitancy- Implementing pro-equity vaccination strategies that prioritize access for marginalized and underserved populations is essential. Expanding free or subsidized vaccination programs and removing financial barriers, such as user fees and out-of-pocket expenses, can increase vaccine uptake among the poor. Strengthening healthcare infrastructure in rural and remote areas, including mobile vaccination clinics and outreach programs, can improve access to vaccines for impoverished communities. Implementing targeted health education and communication campaigns that address the specific needs and challenges faced by impoverished populations can help build trust and confidence in vaccines. By addressing the socioeconomic determinants of vaccine hesitancy, including poverty, India can improve vaccine acceptance and coverage rates, ultimately reducing the burden of vaccine- preventable diseases and promoting health equity. Addressing vaccine hesitancy in India requires multifaceted approaches that consider the intersectionality of factors such as illiteracy, lack of awareness, lack of communication, and poverty. Effective strategies should include comprehensive health education programs, targeted communication campaigns in local languages, community engagement initiatives, and efforts to improve healthcare access and infrastructure in underserved areas. By addressing these underlying issues, it is possible to increase vaccine acceptance and uptake, thereby reducing the burden of vaccine-preventable diseases in India. THE IMPACT AND ROLE OF ADVERSE EVENT FOLLOWING IMMUNIZATION IN VACCINE HESITANCY Adverse events following immunization (AEFI) can play a significant role in vaccine hesitancy, influencing individuals' perceptions of vaccine safety and efficacy. Here's how AEFIs impact vaccine hesitancy and their role in shaping public attitudes towards vaccination: 32 Impact on Trust and Confidence- AEFIs, particularly those that are severe or unexpected, can erode public trust in vaccines and the healthcare system. High-profile cases of AEFIs reported in the media or through social networks can amplify fear and anxiety, leading to increased vaccine hesitancy among the population. Perceptions of vaccine safety are closely linked to trust in healthcare providers, government agencies, and pharmaceutical companies, and AEFIs can undermine confidence in these institutions. Amplification of Misinformation- AEFIs may fuel the spread of misinformation and vaccine-related rumors, particularly in online communities and social media platforms. Misinformation about vaccine safety and adverse reactions can spread rapidly, leading to heightened anxiety and reluctance to vaccinate. AEFIs may be inaccurately attributed to vaccines, perpetuating myths about vaccine dangers and contributing to vaccine hesitancy. Psychological Impact on Vaccine Decision-making- Individuals may overestimate the likelihood and severity of AEFIs, leading to vaccine hesitancy even in the absence of evidence linking vaccines to adverse events. The "availability heuristic" bias may lead people to base their perceptions of vaccine safety on vivid or memorable cases of AEFIs, rather than on comprehensive risk-benefit assessments. Fear of AEFIs may outweigh rational assessments of the risks and benefits of vaccination, leading some individuals to delay or refuse vaccines for themselves or their children. Healthcare Provider Communication- Healthcare providers play a crucial role in addressing vaccine hesitancy and mitigating concerns about AEFIs. Effective communication strategies that acknowledge and address individuals' concerns about vaccine safety can help build trust and confidence in vaccination. Open and transparent discussions about the risks and benefits of vaccines, as well as the rarity of severe AEFIs, can reassure patients and encourage vaccine acceptance. Surveillance and Monitoring- Robust surveillance systems for monitoring AEFIs are essential for maintaining public confidence in vaccination programs. Prompt investigation and transparent reporting of AEFIs can help identify genuine safety concerns, differentiate between coincidental events and true vaccine reactions, and inform evidence-based vaccine policies. Continued monitoring of vaccine safety through pharmacovigilance systems is critical for detecting rare or long-term AEFIs and ensuring the ongoing safety of vaccines. Overall, while AEFIs can contribute to vaccine hesitancy, proactive communication, transparent reporting, and evidence-based risk communication are essential for addressing concerns, maintaining trust in vaccination, and promoting public health. By prioritizing vaccine safety, monitoring AEFIs, and addressing public concerns through open dialogue, healthcare 33  providers and policymakers can help mitigate vaccine hesitancy and ensure high vaccination coverage rates. DATA ON THE ROLE OF ADVERSE EVENTS FOLLOWING IMMUNIZATION (AEFI) IN VACCINE HESITANCY While specific quantitative data on the role of adverse events following immunization (AEFI) in vaccine hesitancy can be challenging to quantify precisely due to its multifactorial nature and the complexity of public attitudes towards vaccination, several studies and surveys have provided insights into the impact of AEFIs on vaccine hesitancy. Here are some key findings and data points: Surveys and Studies- A study published in Vaccine in 2019 assessed vaccine hesitancy in 67 low- and middle-income countries and found that concerns about vaccine safety, including fear of AEFIs, were significant contributors to vaccine hesitancy. A survey conducted by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2015 found that vaccine safety concerns, including fear of AEFIs, were cited as one of the top reasons for vaccine hesitancy among parents in various countries. A systematic review published in 2016 analyzed studies on vaccine hesitancy and found that perceived risk of AEFIs was associated with lower vaccine acceptance and uptake. Vaccine Safety Perceptions- Data from the Vaccine Confidence Project, a global survey initiative, have shown that concerns about vaccine safety, particularly fear of AEFIs, vary widely across different regions and populations. Surveys conducted in high-income countries have found that parents who perceive vaccines to be less safe or have concerns about vaccine side effects, including AEFIs, are more likely to delay or refuse vaccination for their children. Impact on Vaccine Decision-making- Studies have shown that media coverage of AEFIs, especially when sensationalized o