PROF-ED-6-FINALS-REVIEWER PDF

Coverage of Exam-75 pts. 1. Learners with Exceptionalities 2. Behaviorism: Pavlov, Thorndike, Skinner 3. Neo-Behaviorism: Tolman and Bandura 4. Gestalt Psychology 5. Information Processing 6.Gagne’s Conditions of Learning 7.Ausubel’s Meaningful Verbal Learning/Subsumption Theory *8.Bruner’s Construc...

Coverage of Exam-75 pts. 1. Learners with Exceptionalities 2. Behaviorism: Pavlov, Thorndike, Skinner 3. Neo-Behaviorism: Tolman and Bandura 4. Gestalt Psychology 5. Information Processing 6.Gagne’s Conditions of Learning 7.Ausubel’s Meaningful Verbal Learning/Subsumption Theory *8.Bruner’s Constructivist Theory 9.Constructivism(Piaget & Vygotsky) 10.Transfer of Learning 11.Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives-Revised Module 6 Learners with Exceptionalities One significant factor that highlights individual differences and diversity in learning is the presence of exceptionalities. We commonly refer to learners with exceptionalities- as persons who are different in some way from the “normal” or “average”. “exceptional learners”- includes those with cognitive abilities, behavior, social functioning, physical and sensory impairments, emotional disturbances, and giftedness. Most of these learners require a lot of understanding and patience as well as special education and related services if they are to reach their full potential of development. Exceptionalities branching into: Learning Disabilities, Mental Retardation Sensory Impairments Emotional and Behavioral Disorders Autism Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments disability- is a measurable impairment or limitation that “interferes with a person’s ability, for example, to walk, lift, hear, or learn. It may refer to a physical, sensory, or mental condition” (Schiefelbusch Institute, 1996). The word disability has become the more accepted term, having replaced the word handicap in federal laws in the US, one of which is the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), IDEA is the law that provides comprehensive service and support for exceptional learners. Our very own 1987 Philippine Constitution, Article XIV, Sec. 2, uses the word “disabled” in paragraph (5) “Provide adult citizens, the disabled, and out-of-school youth with training… Handicap- is a disadvantage that occurs as a result of a disability or impairment. The degree of disadvantage (or the extent of the handicap) is often dependent on the adjustment made by bothperson and his environment. Therefore, the extent to which a disability handicaps an individual can vary greatly. Two persons may have the same disability but not the same degree of being handicapped. For example, they both have a hearing impairment, one knows sign language and can read lips while the other cannot. The first individual would not have as much handicap as the second one. Another example, two persons who move around on a wheel chair, the one studying in a school campus with wheelchair accessibility in all areas would be less handicapped than one in a school without wheel chair accessibility. Categories of Exceptionalities Specific Cognitive or Academic Difficulties Learning Disabilities. Learning disabilities involve difficulties in specific cognitive processes like : perception, language, memory or metacognition that are not due to other disabilities like mental retardation, emotional or behavioral disorders, or sensory impairments. Examples of learning disabilities: dyslexia (reading), dyscalculia (number operations) and dysgraphia (writing). Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. ADHD is manifested in either or both of these: (1) difficulty in focusing and maintaining attention and (2) recurrent hyperactive and impulsive behavior. Speech and Communication Disorders. There is difficulty in spoken language including voice disorders, inability to produce the sounds…correctly, stuttering, difficulty in spoken language comprehension that significantly hamper classroom performance. Social/Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties Autism. Autism is a condition manifested by different levels of impaired social interaction and communication, repetitive behaviors and limited interests. Individuals with autism usually have an intense need for routine and a predictable environment. Mental Retardation. Mental retardation refers to significant sub-average intelligence and deficits in adaptive behavior. There is difficulty in managing activities of daily living and in conducting themselves appropriately in social situations. Emotional/Conduct Disorders. This involves the presence of emotional states like depression and aggression over a considerable amount of time that they notably disturb learning and performance in school. Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments Physical and health impairments. This involves physical or medical conditions (usually long-term) including one or more of these: (1) limited energy and strength, (2) reduced mental alertness, and/or (3) little muscle control. Severe and Multiple Disabilities. This refers to the presence of two or more different types of disabilities, at times at a profound level. The combination of disabilities makes it necessary to make specific adaptations and have more specialized educational programs. Sensory Impairments Visual Impairments. These are conditions when there is malfunction of the eyes or optic nerves that prevent normal vision even with corrective lenses. Hearing Impairments. These involve malfunction of the ear or auditory nerves that hinders perception of sounds within the frequency range of normal speech. Giftedness Giftedness. This involves a significantly high level of cognitive development. There is unusually high ability or aptitude in one or more of these aspects: intellectual ability, aptitude in academic subjects, creativity, visual or performing arts or leadership. People-First Language What is People-First Language? Just as the term would imply, this language trend involves putting the person first, not the disability (e.g., a person with a disability, not a disabled person). Thus, people-first language tells us what conditions people have, not what they are (Schiefelbusch Institute, 1996). This is similar to saying “person with AIDS,” rather than “AIDS victim”. Other suggestions for referring to those with disabilities include: - avoiding generic labels (people with mental retardation is preferable to the mentally retarded); - emphasizing abilities, not limitations (for instance, uses a wheelchair is preferable to confined to a wheelchair); - avoiding euphemisms (such as physically-challenged) which are regarded as condescending and avoid the real issues that result from a disability; and - avoiding implying illness or suffering (had polio is preferable to is a polio victim, and has multiple sclerosis is preferable to suffers from multiple sclerosis) (Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 2000; Schiefelbusch Institute, 1996). Using people-first language and applying the guidelines above will remind you to have a more respectful and accepting attitude toward learners with exceptionalities. The presence of impairments requires them to exert more effort to L2 Module 7 Behaviorism: Pavlov, Thorndike, Watson, Skinner The theory of behaviorism focuses on the study of observable and measurable behavior. It emphasizes that behavior is mostly learned through conditioning and reinforcement (rewards and punishment). It does not give much attention to the mind and the possibility of thought processes occurring in the mind. Contributions in the development of the behaviorist theory largely came from Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike and Skinner. Advance Organizer Behaviorism branching into: Classical Conditioning (Pavlov/Watson), Connectionism (Thorndike), Operant Conditioning (Skinner). Connectionism further branches into Primary Laws (Law of Effect, Law of Exercise, Law of Readiness). Operant Conditioning branches into Reinforcement and Shaping of Behavior.] Behaviorism Ivan Pavlov Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, is well known for his work in classical conditioning or stimulus substitution. Pavlov’s most renowned experiment involved meat, a dog and a bell. Initially, Pavlov was measuring the dog’s salivation in order to study digestion. This is when he stumbled upon classical conditioning. Pavlov’s Experiment. Before conditioning, ringing the bell (neutral stimulus) caused no response from the dog. Placing food (unconditioned stimulus) in front of the dog initiated salivation (unconditioned response). During conditioning, the bell was rung a few seconds before the dog was presented with food. After conditioning, the ringing of the bell (conditioned stimulus) alone produced salivation (conditioned response). This is classical conditioning. See illustration below: [Diagram showing three stages of Pavlov's experiment: - Stage 1 – Before conditioning: Bell (neutral stimulus) → No response - Stage 2 – During conditioning: Bell (neutral stimulus) + Meat (unconditioned stimulus) → Salivation (unconditioned response) - Stage 3 – After conditioning: Bell (conditioned stimulus) → Salivation (conditioned response)] Classical Conditioning Somehow you were conditioned to associate particular objects with your teacher. So at present, when you encounter the objects, you are also reminded of your teacher. This is an example of classical conditioning. Pavlov also had the following findings: Stimulus Generalization. Once the dog has learned to salivate at the sound of the bell, it will salivate at other similar sounds. Extinction. If you stop pairing the bell with the food, salivation will eventually cease in response to the bell. Spontaneous Recovery. Extinguished responses can be “recovered” after an elapsed time, but will soon extinguish again if the dog is not presented with food. Discrimination. The dog could learn to discriminate between similar bells (stimuli) and discern which bell would result in the presentation of food and which would not. Higher-Order Conditioning. Once the dog has been conditioned to associate the bell with food, another unconditioned stimulus, such as a light, may be flashed at the same time that the bell is rung. Eventually, the dog will salivate at the flash of the light without the sound of the bell. Edward L. Thorndike Edward Thorndike’s Connectionism theory gave us the original S-R framework of behavioral psychology. More than a hundred years ago he wrote a text book entitled, Educational Psychology. He was the first one to use this term. He explained that learning is the result of associations forming between stimuli (S) and responses (R). Such associations or “habits” become strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings. The model for S-R theory was trial and error learning in which certain responses came to be repeated more than others because of rewards. The main principle of connectionism (like all behavioral theory) was that learning could be adequately explained without considering any unobservable internal states. Thorndike’s theory on connectionism, states that learning has taken place when a strong connection or bond between stimulus and response is formed. He came up with three primary laws. Law of Effect. The law of effect states that a connection between a stimulus and response is strengthened when the consequence is positive (reward) and the connection between the stimulus and the response is weakened when the consequence is negative. Thorndike later on, revised this “law” when he found that negative rewards (punishment) do not necessarily weaken bonds, and that some seemingly pleasurable consequences do not necessarily motivate performance. Law of Exercise. This tells us that the more an S-R (stimulus-response) bond is practiced the stronger it will become. “Practice makes perfect,” seem to be associated with this. However, like the law of effect, the law of exercise also had to be revised when Thorndike found that practice without feedback does not necessarily enhance performance. Law of Readiness. This states that the more readiness the learner has to respond to the stimulus, the stronger will be the bond between them. When a person is ready to respond to a stimulus and is not made to respond, it becomes annoying to the person. For example, if the teacher says, “Okay we will now watch the movie (stimulus), you’ve been waiting for,” And suddenly the power goes off. The students will feel frustrated because they were ready to respond to the stimulus but was prevented from doing so. Likewise, if the person is not at all ready to respond to a stimuli and is asked to respond, that also becomes annoying. For instance, the teacher calls a student to stand up and recite, and then the teacher asks the question and expects the student to respond right away when he is still not ready. This will be annoying to the student. That is why teachers should remember to say the question first, and wait for a few seconds before calling on anyone to answer. Principles Derived from Thorndike’s Connectionism: 1. Learning requires both practice and rewards (laws of effect/exercise) 2. A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they belong to the same action sequence (law of readiness) 3. Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations. 4. Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned. John Watson John B. Watson was the first American psychologist to work with Pavlov’s ideas. He too was initially involved in animal studies, then later became involved in human behavior research. He considered that humans are born with a few reflexes and the emotional reactions of love and rage. All other behavior is learned through stimulus-response associations through conditioning. He believed in the power of conditioning so much that he said that if he is given a dozen healthy infants he can make them into anything you want them to be, basically through making stimulus-response connections through conditioning. Experiment on Albert. Watson applied classical conditioning in his experiment concerning Albert, a young child, and a white rat. In the beginning, Albert was not afraid of the rat; but Watson made a sudden loud noise each time Albert touched the rat. Because Albert was frightened by the loud noise, he soon became conditioned to fear and avoid the rat. Later, the child’s response was generalized to other small animals. Now, he was also afraid of small animals. Watson then “extinguished” or made the child “unlearn” fear by showing the rat without the loud noise. Surely, Watson's research methods would be questioned today, nevertheless, his work did clearly show the role of conditioning in the development of emotional responses to certain stimuli. This may help us understand the fears, phobias and prejudices that people develop. Burrhus Frederick Skinner. Like Pavlov, Watson and Thorndike, Skinner believed in the stimulus-response pattern of conditioned behavior. His theory zeroed in only on changes in observable behavior, excluding any likelihood of any processes taking place in the mind. Skinner's 1948 book, Walden Two, is about a utopian society based on operant conditioning. He also wrote, Science and Human Behavior, (1953) in which he pointed out how the principles of operant conditioning function in social institutions such as government, law, religion, economics and education. BF Skinner 904-1990 Skinner's work differs from that of the three behaviorists before him in that he studied operant behavior (voluntary behaviors used in operating on the environment). Thus, his theory came to be known as Operant Conditioning. Operant Conditioning is based upon the notion that learning is a result of change in overt behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual's response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment. A response produces a consequence such as defining a word, hitting a ball, or solving a math problem. When a particular Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the individual is conditioned to respond. Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner's S-R theory. A reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired response. There is a positive reinforcer and and a negative reinforcer. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that is given or added to increase the response. An example of positive reinforcement is when a teacher promises extra time in the play area to children who behave well during the lesson. Another is a mother who promises a new cell phone for her son who gets good grades. Still, other examples include verbal praises, star stamps and stickers. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that results in the increased frequency of a response when it is withdrawn or removed. A negative reinforcer is not a punishment, in fact it is a reward. For instance, a teacher announces that a student who gets an average grade of 1.5 for the two grading periods will no longer take the final examination. The negative reinforcer is "removing" the final exam, which we realize is a form of reward for working hard and getting an average grade of 1.5. A negative reinforcer is different from a punishment because a punishment is a consequence intended to result in reduced responses. An example would be a student who always comes late is not allowed to join a group work that has already began (punishment) and, therefore, loses points for that activity. The punishment was done to reduce the response of repeatedly coming to class late. Skinner also looked into extinction or non-reinforcement: Responses that are not reinforced are not likely to be repeated. For example, ignoring a student’s misbehavior may extinguish that behavior. Shaping of Behavior. An animal on a cage may take a very long time to figure out that pressing a lever will produce food. To accomplish such behavior, successive approximations of the behavior are rewarded until the animal learns the association between the lever and the food reward. To begin shaping, the animal may be rewarded for simply turning in the direction of the lever, then for moving toward the lever, for brushing against the lever, and finally for pressing the lever. Behavioral chaining comes about when a series of steps are needed to be learned. The animal would master each step in sequence until the entire sequence is learned. This can be applied to a child being taught to tie a shoelace. The child can be given reinforcements (rewards) until the entire process of tying the shoelace is learned. Reinforcement Schedules. Once the desired behavioral response is accomplished, reinforcement does not have to be 100%; in fact, it can be maintained more successfully through what Skinner referred to as partial reinforcement schedules. Partial reinforcement schedules include interval schedules and ratio schedules. Fixed Interval Schedules. The target response is reinforced after a fixed amount of time has passed since the last reinforcement. Example, the bird in a cage is given food (reinforcer) every 10 minutes, regardless of how many times it presses the bar. Variable Interval Schedules. This is similar to fixed interval schedules but the amount of time that must pass between reinforcement varies. Example, the bird may receive food (reinforcer) different intervals, not every ten minutes. Fixed Ratio Schedules. A fixed number of correct responses must occur before reinforcement may recur. Example, the bird will be given food (reinforcer) everytime it presses the bar 5 times. Variable Ratio Schedules. The number of correct repetitions of the correct response for reinforcement varies. Example, the bird is given food (reinforcer) everytime it presses the bar 3 times, then after 10 times, then after 4 times. So the bird will not be able to predict how many times it needs to press the bar before it gets food again. Variable interval and especially, variable ratio schedules produce steadier and more persistent rates of response because the learners cannot predict when the reinforcement will come although they know that they will eventually succeed. An example of this is why people continue to buy lotto tickets even when an almost negligible percentage of people actually win. While it is true that very rarely there is a big winner, but once in a while somebody hits the jackpot (reinforcement). People cannot predict when the jackpot can be gotten (variable interval) so they continue to buy tickets (repetition of response). Implications of Operant Conditioning. These implications are given for programmed instruction. 1. Practice should take the form of question (stimulus) - answer (response) frames which expose the student to the subject in gradual steps. 2. Require that the learner makes a response for every frame and receives immediate feedback. 3. Try to arrange the difficulty of the questions so the response is always correct and hence, a positive reinforcement. 4. Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired with secondary reinforcers such as verbal praise, prizes and good grades. Principles Derived from Skinner’s Operant Conditioning: 1. Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur; intermittent reinforcement is particularly effective. 2. Information should be presented in small amounts so that responses can be reinforced (“shaping”). 3. Reinforcements will generalize across similar stimuli (“stimulus generalization”) producing secondary conditioning. Looking back at the activity at the beginning, try to look into the rewards and punishments that your former teacher used in class. Connect them with Skinner’s Operant Conditioning. Can you now see why your teacher used them? Synapse Strengtheners 1. Read more about classical and operant conditioning. Find out about their similarities and differences. Prepare a concept map or graphic organizer to highlight these similarities and differences. L3 Module 8 Neo Behaviorism: Tolman and Bandura Introduction With new researches, explanations provided by the basic principles of behaviorism appeared not to satisfy all learning scenarios. New theories came into view which maintained some of the behaviorist concepts but excluded others, and added new ideas which later came to be associated with the cognitive views of learning. The neo-behaviorists, then, were a transitional group, bridging the gap between behaviorism and cognitive theories of learning. Advance Organizer [Diagram showing Neo Behaviorism branching into Tolman's Purposive Behaviorism (Goal-Directedness, Cognitive Maps, Latent Learning, Intervening Variables) and Bandura's Social-Learning Theory (Principles, Modeling, Four Conditions For Effective Modeling)] Learning Theory. Both theories are influenced by behaviorism (which is focused on external elements in learning), but their principles seem to also be reflective of the cognitive perspective (focused on more internal elements). Tolman's Purposive Behaviorism Purposive behaviorism has also been referred to as Sign Learning Theory and is often seen as the link between behaviorism and cognitive theory. Tolman's theory was founded on two psychological views: those of the Gestalt psychologists and those of John Watson, the behaviorist. Tolman believed that learning is a cognitive process. Learning involves forming beliefs and obtaining knowledge about the environment and then revealing that knowledge through purposeful and goal-directed behavior. Tolman stated in his sign theory that an organism learns by pursuing signs to a goal, i.e., learning is acquired through meaningful behavior. He stressed the organized aspect of learning: "The stimuli which are allowed in are not connected by just simple one-to-one switches to the outgoing responses. Rather the incoming impulses are usually worked over and elaborated in the central control room into a tentative cognitive-like map of the environment. And it is this tentative map, indicating routes and paths and environmental relationships, which finally determines what responses, if any, the animal will finally make." Tolman's form of behaviorism stressed the relationships between stimuli rather than stimulus-response. Tolman said that a new stimulus (the sign) becomes associated with already meaningful stimulus (the significate) through a series of pairings; there is no need for reinforcement in order to establish learning. In your maze activity, the new stimulus or "sign" (maze B) became associated with already meaningful stimuli, the significate (maze A). So you may have connected the two stimuli, maze A and maze B; and used your knowledge and experience in maze A to learn to respond to maze B. Tolman's Key Concepts Learning is always purposive and goal-directed. Tolman asserted that learning is always purposive and goal-directed. He held the notion that an organism acted or responded for some adaptive purpose. He believed individuals do more than merely respond to stimuli; they act on beliefs, attitudes, changing conditions, and they strive toward goals. Tolman saw behavior as holistic, purposive and cognitive. Cognitive maps in rats. In his most famous experiment, one group of rats was placed at random starting locations in a maze but the food was always in the same location. Another group of rats had the food placed in different locations which always required exactly the same pattern of turns from their starting location. The group that had the food in the same location performed much better than the other group, supposedly demonstrating that they had learned the location rather than a specific sequence of turns. This is tendency to "learn location" signified that rats somehow formed cognitive maps that help them perform well on the maze. He also found out that organisms will select the shortest or easiest path to achieve a goal. Applied in human learning, since a student passes by the same route going to school everyday, he acquires a cognitive map of the location of his school So when transportation re-routing is done, he can still figure out what turns to make to get to school the shortest or easiest way. Latent Learning. Latent learning is a kind of learning that remains stays with the individual until needed. It is learning that is not outwardly manifested at once. According to Tolman it can exist even without reinforcement. He demonstrated this in his rat experiments wherein rats apparently “learned the maze” by forming cognitive maps of the maze, but manifested this knowledge of the maze only when they needed to. Applied in human learning, a two-year old always sees her dad operate the tv, remote control and observes how the tv is turned on or how channels are changed, and volume adjusted. After sometime, the parents are surprised that the first time that their daughter holds the remote control, she already knows which buttons to press for what function. Through latent learning, the child knew the skills beforehand, even though she has never done them before. The concept of intervening variable as determinants of behavior are variables that are not readily seen but serve as intermediaries of variables that are not readily seen but serve as intermediaries of behavior. Tolman believed that learning is mediated or is influenced by expectations, perceptions, representations and other internal or environmental intervening variable. Example, in his experiments with rats he found out that hunger was an intervening variable. Reinforcement not essential for learning. Tolman concluded that reinforcement is not essential for learning, although it provides an incentive for performance. In his studies, he observed that a rat was able to acquire knowledge of the way through a maze, i.e., to develop a cognitive map, even in the absence of reinforcement. Albert Bandura's Social Learning Theory Social learning theory focuses on the learning that occurs within a social context. It considers that people learn from one another, including such concepts as observational learning, imitation and modeling. The ten-year old boy Sergio Pelico did watch Saddam's execution on TV and then must have imitated it. Among others, Albert Bandura is considered the leading proponent of this theory. General principles of social learning theory 1. People can learn by observing the behavior of others and the outcomes of those behaviors. 2. Learning can occur without a change in behavior. Behaviorists say that learning has to be represented by a permanent change in behavior, in contrast social learning theorists say that because people can leam through observation alone, their learning may not necessarily be shown in their performance. Learning may or may not result in a behavior change. 3. Cognition plays a role in learning. Over the last 30 years, social learning theory has become increasingly cognitive in its interpretation of human learning. Awareness and expectations of future reinforcements or punishments can have a major effect on the behaviors that people exhibit. 4. Social learning theory can be considered a bridge or a transition between behaviorist learning theories and cognitive learning theories. How the environment reinforces and punishes modeling People are often reinforced for modeling the behavior of others. Bandura suggested that the environment also reinforces modeling. This is in several possible ways: 1. The observer is reinforced by the model. For example a student who changes dress to fit in with a certain group of students has a strong likelihood of being accepted and thus reinforced by that group. 2. The observer is reinforced by a third person. The observer might be modeling the actions of someone else, for example, an outstanding class leader or student. The teacher notices this and compliments and praises the observer for modeling such behavior thus reinforcing that behavior. 3. The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing consequences. Many behaviors that we learn from others produce satisfying or reinforcing results. For example, a student in my multimedia class could observe how the extra work a classmate does is fun. This student in turn would do the same extra work and also experience enjoyment. 4. Consequences of the model's behavior affect the observer's behavior vicariously. This is known as vicarious reinforcement. This is where the model is reinforced for a response and then the observer shows an increase in that same response. Bandura illustrated this by having students watch a film of a model hitting an inflated clown doll. One group of children saw the model being praised for such action. Without being reinforced, the group of children began to also hit the doll. hd 97 Contemporary social learning perspective of reinforcement and punishment 1. Contemporary theory proposes that both reinforcement and punishment have indirect effects on learning. They are not the sole or main cause. 2. Reinforcement and punishment influence the extent to which an individual exhibits a behavior that has been learned. 3. The expectation of reinforcement influences cognitive processes that promote learning. Therefore, attention pays a critical role in learning. and attention is influenced by the expectation of reinforcement. An example would be, when the teacher tells a group of students that what they will study next is not on the test. Students will not pay attention because they do not expect to know the information for a test. Cognitive factors in social learning Social learning theory has cognitive factors as well as behaviorist factors (actually operant factors). 1. Learning without performance: Bandura makes a distinction between learning through observation and the actual imitation of what has been learned. This is similar to Tolman's latent learning.. 2. Cognitive processing during learning: Social learning theorists contend that attention is a critical factor in learning. 3. Expectations: As a result of being reinforced, people form expectations about the consequences that future behaviors are likely to bring. They expect certain behaviors to bring reinforcements and others to bring punishment. The learner needs to be aware, however, of the response reinforcements and response punishment. Reinforcement increases a response only when the learner is aware of that connection. 4. Reciprocal causation: Bandura proposed that behavior can influence both the environment and the person. In fact each of these three variables, the person, the behavior, and the environment can have an influence on each other. 5. Modeling: There are different types of models. There is the live model, an actual person demonstrating the behavior. There can also be a symbolic model, which can be a person or action portrayed in some other medium, such as television, videotape, computer programs. Behaviors that can be learned through modeling Many behaviors can be learned, at least partly, through modeling. Examples that can be cited are, students can watch parents read, students can watch the demonstrations of mathematics problems, or see someone act bravely in a fearful situation. Aggression can be learned through models. Research indicates that children become more aggressive when they observed aggressive or violent models. Moral thinking and moral behavior are influenced by observation and modeling. This includes moral judgments regarding right and wrong which can, in part, develop through modeling. Conditions necessary for effective modeling to occur Bandura mentions four conditions that are necessary before an individual can successfully model the behavior of someone else: 1. Attention The person must first pay attention to the model. 2. Retention The observer must be able to remember the behavior that has been observed. One way of increasing this is using the technique of rehearsal. 3. Motor reproduction The third condition is the ability to replicate the behavior that the model has just demonstrated. This means that the observer has to be able to replicate the action, which could be a problem with a learner who is not ready developmentally to replicate the action. For example, little children have difficulty doing complex physical motion. 4. Motivation The final necessary ingredient for modeling to occur is motivation. Learners must want to demonstrate what they have learned. Remember that since these four conditions vary among individuals, different people will reproduce the same behavior differently. Effects of modeling on behavior: 1. Modeling teaches new behaviors. 2. Modeling influences the frequency of previously learned behaviors. 3. Modeling may encourage previously forbidden behaviors. 4. Modeling increases the frequency of similar behaviors. For example a student might see a friend excel in basketball and he tries to excel in football because he is not tall enough for basketball. Educational implications of social learning theory Social learning theory has numerous implications for classroom use. 1. Students often learn a great deal simply by observing other people. 2. Describing the consequences of behavior can effectively increase the appropriate behaviors and decrease inappropriate ones. This can involve discussing with learners about the rewards and consequences of various behaviors. 3. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new behaviors. Instead of using shaping, which is operant conditioning, modeling can provide a faster, more efficient means for teaching new behavior. To promote effective modeling, a teacher must make sure that the four essential conditions exist; attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivation. 4. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors and take care that they do not model inappropriate behaviors. 5. Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models. This technique is especially important to break down traditional stereotypes. L5 Cognitive Perspective Module 9 Gestalt Psychology Take the Challenge! In this Module, challenge yourself to attain the following learning outcomes: describe the different gestalt principles. list ways of applying gestalt psychology in the teaching- learning process. demonstrate appreciation of the usefulness of gestalt principles in the teaching-learning process. Introduction Gestalt psychology was at the forefront of the cognitive psychology. It served as the foundation of the cognitive perspective to learning. It opposed the external and mechanistic focus of behaviorism. It considered the mental processes and products of perception. Gestalt Psychology Gestalt Principles Insight Learning Lifespace (Lewin) Law of Proximity Inner Forces Law of Closure Outer Forces Law of Good Continuation Law of Good Pragnan Law of Figure/ Ground Gestalt theory was the initial cognitive response to behaviorism. It emphasized the importance of sensory wholes and the dynamic nature of visual perception. The term gestalt means "form" or "configuration." Psychologists Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka studied perception and concluded that perceivers (or learners) are not passive, but rather active. They suggested that learners do not just collect information as is but they actively process and restructure data in order to understand it. This is the perceptual process. Certain factors impact on this perceptual process. Factors like past experiences, needs, attitudes and one's present situation can affect their perception. One may have difficulty perceiving both the words "you" and "me" in the first picture in the activity if one is trying to forget an ex-sweetheart whe caused pain; or simply because he was looking on the foreground and not the background. According to the gestalt psychologists, the way we form our perceptions are guided by certain principles or laws. These principles or laws determine what we see or make of things or situations we meet. Gestalt Principles Law of Proximity. Elements that are closer together will be perceived as a coherent object, On the left, there appears to be three columns, while on the right, there appears to be three horizontal rows. When objects we are perceiving are near each other, we perceive them as belonging together. Law of Similarity. Elements that look similar will be perceived as part of the same form. There seems to be a triangle in the square We link similar elements together Law of Closure. We tend to fill the gaps or "close" the figures we perceive. We enclose a space by completing a contour and ignoring gaps in the figure. Law of Good Continuation. Individuals have the tendency to continue contours whenever the elements of the pattern establish an implied direction. People tend to draw a good continuous line. Law of Good Pragnanz. The stimulus will be organized into as good a figure as possible. In this example, good refers to symmetry, simplicity and regularity. The figure is perceived per as a square overlapping a triangle, not a combination of several complicated shapes. Based on our experiences with perception, we "expect" certain patterns and therefore perceive that expected pattern. Law of Figure/Ground. We tend to pay attention and perceive things in the foreground first. A stimulus will be perceived as separate from its ground. (Figures designed by Jenny Fultz of Anderson University) Insight Learning Gestalt psychology adheres to the idea of learning taking place by discovery or insight. The idea of insight learning was first developed by Wolfgang Kohler in which he described experiments with apes where the apes could use boxes and sticks as tools to solve problems. In the box problem, a banana is attached to the top of a chimpanzee's cage. The banana is out of reach but can be reached by climbing on and jumping from a box. Only one of Kohler's apes (Sultan) could solve this problem. A much more difficult problem which involved the stacking of boxes was introduced by Kohler. This problem required the ape to stack one box on another, and master gravitational problems by building a stable stack. Kohler also gave the apes sticks which they used to rake food into the cage. Sultan, Kohler's very intelligent ape was able to master a two-stick problem by inserting one stick into the end of the other in order to reach the food. In each of these problems, the important aspect of learning was not reinforcement, but the coordination of thinking to create new organizations (of materials). Kohler referred to this behavior as insight or discovery learning Kohler proposed the view that insight follows from the characteristics of objects under consideration. His theory suggested that learning could occur when the individual perceives the relationships of the elements before him and reorganizes these elements and comes to a greater understanding or insight. This could occur without reinforcement, and once it occurs, no review, training or investigation is necessary. Significantly, insight is not necessarily observable by another person. Gestalt Principles and the Teaching-Learning Process The six gestalt principles not only influence perception but they also impact on learning. Other psychologists like Kurt Lewin expounded on gestalt psychology. His theory focusing on "life space" adhered to gestalt psychology. He said that an individual has inner and outer forces that affect his perceptions and also his learning. Inner forces include his own motivation, attitudes and feelings. Outer forces may include the attitude and behavior of the teacher and classmates. All these forces interact and impact on the person's learning. Mario Polito, an Italian psychologist, writes about the relevance of gestalt psychology to education. Gestalt theory is focused on the experience of contact that occurs in the here and now. It considers with interest the life space of teachers as well as students. It takes interest in the complexity of experience, without neglecting anything, but accepting and amplifying all that emerges. It stimulates learning as experience and the experience as a source of learning. It appreciates the affections and meaning that we attribute to what we learn. Knowledge is conceived as a continuous organisation and rearrangement of information according to needs, purposes and meanings. It asserts that learning is not accumulation but remodelling or insight. Autonomy and freedom of the student is stimulated by the teacher. The time necessary for assimilation and for cognitive and existential remodelling is respected. The contact experience between teachers and students is given value: an authentic meeting based on sharing ideas and affections L5 Information Processing Introduction Information processing is a cognitive theoretical framework that focuses on how knowledge enters and is stored in and is retrieved from our memory. It is one of the most significant cognitive theories in the last century and it has strong implications on the teaching-learning process. Advance Organizer Information Processing Theory Types of Knowledge Stages Executive Control Processes General/Specific Encoding Declarative Storage Retrieval Procedural Episodic Conditional Information Processing Theory Relating how the mind and the computer work is a powerful analogy The terms used in the information processing theory (IPT) extend this analogy. In fact, those who program and design computers aim to make computers solve problems through processes similar to that of the human mind. Read on to know more about IPT. Cognitive psychologists believe that cognitive processes influence the nature of what is learned. They consider learning as largely an internal process, not an external behavior change (as behaviorist theorists thought) They look into how we receive, perceive, store and retrieve information They believe that how a person thinks about and interprets what she receives shape what he/she will learn. All these notions comprise what is called the information processing theory. IPT describes how the learner receives information (stimuli) from the environment through the senses and what takes place in between determines whether the information will continue to pass through the sensory register, then the short term memory and the long term memory. Certain factors would also determine whether the information will be retrieved or "remembered when the learner needs it. Let us go into the details. We first consider the types of knowledge that the learner may receive. "Types" of Knowledge General vs. Specific: This involves whether the knowledge is useful in many tasks, or only in one. Declarative This refers to factual knowledge. They relate to the nature of how things are. They may be in the form of a word or an image. Examples are your name, address, a nursery rhyme, the definition of IPT, or even the face of your crush. Procedural This includes knowledge on how to do things, Examples include making a lesson plan, baking a cake, or getting the least common denominator. Episodic This includes memories of life events, like your high school graduation. Conditional This is about "knowing when and why" to apply declarative or procedural strategies. Stages in the Information Processing Theory The stages of IPT involve the functioning of the senses, sensory register, short-term memory and the long-term memory. Basically, IPT asserts three primary stages in the progression of external information becoming incorporated into the internal cognitive structure of choice (schema, concept, script, frame, mental model, etc.). These three primary stages in IPT are: Encoding Information is sensed, perceived and attended to. Storage The information is stored for either a brief or extended period of time, depending upon the processes following encoding. Retrieval The information is brought back at the appropriate time and reactivated for use on a current task, the true measure of effective memory. What made IPT plausible is the notion that cognitive processes could be described in a stage-like model. The stages to processing follow a trail along which information is taken into the memory system, and brought back (recalled) when needed. Most theories of information processing revolve around the three main stages in the memory process: Sensory Register The first step in the IP model holds all sensory information for a very brief time. Capacity: Our mind receives a great amount of information but it is more than what our minds can hold or perceive. Duration: The sensory register only holds the information for an extremely brief period in the order of 1 to 3 seconds. There is a difference in duration based on modality: auditory memory is more persistent than visual. The Role of Attention To bring information into consciousness, it is necessary that we give attention to it. Such that, we can only perceive and remember later those things that pass through our attention "gate". Getting through this attentional filter is done when the learner is interested in the material; when there is concious control over attention, or when information involves novelty, surprise, salience, and distinctiveness. Before information is perceived, it is known as "precategorical" information. This means that until that point, the learner has not established a determination of the categorical membership of the information. To this point, the information is coming in as uninterpreted patterns of stimuli. Once it is perceived, we can categorize, judge, interpret and place meaning to the stimuli. If we fail to perceive, we have no means by which to recognize that the stimulus was ever encountered. Short-Term Memory (STM or Working Memory) Capacity: The STM can only hold 5 to 9 "chunks" of information, sometimes described as 7+/-2. It is called working memory because it is where new information is temporarily placed while it is mentally processed. STM maintains information for a limited time, until the learner has adequate resources to process the infor- mation, or until the information is forgotten. Duration: Around 18 seconds or less. To reduce the loss of information in 18 seconds, you need to do maintenance rehearsal. It is using repetition to keep the information active in STM, like when you repeat a phone number just given over and over. Long-Term Memory (LTM) The LTM is the final or permanent storing house for memory information. It holds the stored information until needed again. Capacity: LTM has unlimited capacity. Duration: Duration in the LTM is indefinite Executive Control Processes The executive control processes involve the executive processor or what is referred to as metacognitive skills. These processes guide the flow of information through the system, help the learner make informed decisions 2 about how to categorize, organize or interpret information. Example of processes are attention, rehearsals and organization. Forgetting Forgetting is the inability to retrieve or access information when needed. There are two main ways in which forgetting likely occurs: Decay Information is not attended to, and eventually "fades' away. Very prevalent in Working Memory. Interference New or old information 'blocks' access to the information in question. Methods for Increasing Retrieval of Information Rehearsal This is repeating information verbatim, either mentally or aloud. Meaningful Learning This is making connections between new information and prior knowledge. Organization It is making connections among various pieces of information. Info that is organized efficiently should be recalled. Elaboration This is adding additional ideas to new information based on what one already knows. It is connecting new info with old to gain meaning. Visual Imagery This means forming a "picture" of the information Generation Things we 'produce' are easier to remember than things we 'hear' Context Remembering the situation helps recover information. Personalization It is making the information relevant to the individual. Other Memory Methods Serial Position Effect (recency and primacy) - You will remember the beginning and end of a 'list' more readily Part Learning Break up the 'list' or "chunk" information to increase memorization. Distributed Practice Break up learning sessions, rather than cramming all the info in at once (Massed Practice) Mnemonic Aids These are memory techniques that learners may employ to help them retain and retrieve information more effectively. This includes the loci technique, acronyms, sentence construction, peg-word and association techniques, among others. Information is received through the senses and goes to the sensory memory for a very brief amount of time. If not found relevant, information may decay. It goes to the STM and if given attention and is perceived and found to be relevant, it is sent to the LTM. If not properly encoded, forgetting occurs. Different cognitive processes applied to the information will then determine if information can be retrieved when needed later. L6 Gagne’s Conditions of Learning In his theory, Gagne specified several different types or levels of learning. He stressed that different internal and external conditions are needed for each type of learning, thus his theory is called conditions of learning. He also provided nine instruction events that serve as basis for the sequencing of instruction. Advance Organizer Gagne's Conditions of Learning Categories of Learning Verbal Information Intellectual Skills Cognitive Strategies Attitudes Motor Skills 9 Events of Instruction Event 1 Gaining Attention Event 2 Informing the Learner of the Objectives Event 2 Stimulating Recall of Prior Leaming Event 4 Presenting the Stimulus Event 5 Providing Learner Guidance Event 6 Eliciting Performance Event 7 Giving Feedback Event 8 Assessing Performance Event 9 Enhancing Retention and Transfer Gagne's theory deals with all aspects of learning. However, the foc of the theory is on intellectual skills. The theory has been utilized to desig instruction in all domains. In the earlier version of the theory, special attent was given to military training settings. Later, Gagne also looked into the of instructional technology in learning. Gagne's Principles 1. Different instruction is required for different learning outcome Offene's theory asserts that there are several different types or re of learning. Furthermore, the theory implies that each different of learning calls for different types of instruction. Gagne nam verbal information, intellectual ski cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes. Distinct intern and external conditions are required for each type of learning. Fr forognitive to learn learned, there muser be exposed to credible role model or arguments that are convinc and moving. Below are the categories of learning with correspond learning outcomes and conditions of learning: Study the two examples of teaching sequences below. They reflect the events of instruction ation ice of Example 1 Lesson: Equilateral Triangles Objective: For students to create equilateral triangles essful allow ck in Target group: Grade 4 pupils 1. Gain attention show variety of computer-generated triangles 2. Identify objective pose question: "What is an equilateral triangle?" 3. Recall prior learning review definitions of triangles 4. Present stimulus give definition of equilateral triangle 5. Guide learning show example of how to create an equilateral triangle 6. Elicit performance ask students to create 5 different examples 7. Provide feedback check all examples as correct/incorrect 8. Assess performance provide scores and remediation 9. Enhance retention/transfer show pictures of objects and ask students to identify equilaterals L7 Ausubel's Meaningful Verbal Learning/ Subsumption Theory Introduction Many educational psychology theories often criticize the expository or presentational manner of teaching. They say that teachers assume such a major role in learning as providers of information, while students remain as passive receivers of information. David Ausubel, instead of criticizing this manner of teaching, proposed ways of improving it. He suggested the use of advance organizers. His ideas are contained in his theory of Meaningful Verbal Learning. Advance Organizer Meaningful Reception of Information Learner's Cognitive Structure Use of Advance Graphic organizer Subsumption Ausubel's Subsumption Theory Four Processes for Meaningful Learning Derivative subsumption Correlative subsumption Superordinate Learning Combinatorial Learning Advance Organizers Expository Narrative Skimming Graphic Organizers David P. Ausubel was bom in 1918 and grew up in Brooklyn, NY He attended the University of Pennsylvania, majoring in Psychology for pre-med and eventually became a psychiatrist He eamed a Ph. D in Developmental Psychology from Columbia University. A series of psychological professorships ensued at schools of education the University of Illinois, University of Toronto, and in the European universities at Beme, the Salesian University at Rome, and the Officer's Training College at Munich. He retired from professional life in 1994 to devote himself full time, at the age of 75, to writing Four books resulted. Abstraction/Generalization The main theme of Ausubel's theory is that knowledge is hierarchically organized; that new information is meaningful to the extent that it can be related (attached, anchored) to what is already known. It is about how individuals learn large amounts of meaningful material from verbal textual presentations in a school setting. He proposed the use of advance organizers as a tool for learning. Focus of Ausubel's Theory 1. The most important factor influencing learning is the quantity, clarity and organization of the learner's present knowledge. This present knowledge consists of facts, concepts, propositions, theories and raw perceptual data that the learner has available to him/her at any point in time. This comprises his/her cognitive structure. 2. Meaningful learning takes place when an idea to be learned is related in some sensible way to ideas that the learner already possesses. Ausubel believed that before new material can be presented effectively, the student's cognitive structure should be strengthened. When this is done, acquisition and retention of new information is facilitated. The way to strengthen the student's cognitive structure is by using advance organizers that allow students to already have a bird's eye view or to see the "big picture" of the topic to be learned even before going to the details. Ausubel's belief of the use of advance organizers is anchored on the principle of subsumption. He thought that the primary way of learning was subsumption: a process by which new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structure. Likewise, Ausubel pointed out. that what is learned is based on what is already known. This signifies that one's own prior knowledge and biases limit and affect what is learned. Module 12-Ausubel's Meaningful Verbal Learning/Subsumption Theory Also, retention of new knowledge is greater because it is based on prior concrete concepts. Meaningful learning can take place through four processes: Derivative subsumption. This describes the situation in which the new information you learn is an example of a concept that you have already learned. Let's say you have acquired a basic concept such as "bird". You bow that a bird has feathers, a beak, lays egg. Now you learn about a kind bird that you have never seen before, let's say a blue jay, that conforms your previous understanding of bird. Your new knowledge of blue jays is shed to your concept of bird, without substantially altering that concept in any way. So, an in Ausubel's theory, you had learned about blue jays through the process of derivative subsumption. Correlative subsumption. Examine this example. Now, let's say you see 1 new kind of bird that has a really big body and long strong legs. It doesn't fy but it can run fast. In order to accommodate this new information, you have to change or expand your concept of bird to include the possibility of being big and having long legs. You now include your concept of an ostrich to your previous concept of what a bird is. You have learned about this new kind of bird through the process of correlative subsumption. In a sense, you might say that this is more "valuable" learning than that of derivative subsumption, since it enriches the higher-level concept. Superordinate learning. Imagine that a child was well acquainted with banana, mango, dalandan, guava etc., but the child did not know, until she was taught, that these were all examples of fruits. In this case, the child úready knew a lot of examples of the concept, but did not know the concept belf until it was taught to her. This is superordinate learning. Combinatorial learning. This is when newly acquired knowledge ombines with prior knowledge to enrich the understanding of both concepts. The first three learning processes all included new information that relates tba hierarchy at a level that is either below or above previously acquired howledge. Combinatorial learning is different; it describes a process by which the new idea is derived from another idea that is neither higher nor lower in the hierarchy, but at the same level (in a different, but related, "branch"). It tha lot like as learning by analogy. For example, to teach someone about how plants "breathe" you might relate it to previously acquired knowledge of human respiration where man inhales oxygen and exhales carbon dioxide. Advance Organizers The advance organizer is a major instructional tool proposed by Ausubel. The advante organize gives you two benefits: (1) You will find casi nch other. As you go about learning about the topic and go through the four you can readily see how the concepts in a certain topic are related to comect new information with what you already know about the topic, and ming processes, the advance organizer helps you link the new learning your existing scheme. As such, advance organizers facilitate learning by helping you organize and strengthen your cognitive structure. are not the same with Types of advance organizers 1. Expository describes the new content. 2. Narrative presents the new information in the form of a story to students. 3. Skimming is done by looking over the new material to gain a basic overview. 4. Graphic organizer visuals to set up or outline the new information This may include pictographs, descriptive patterns, concept patterns, concept maps. Application of Principles 1. The most general ideas of a subject should be presented first and then progressively differentiated in terms of detail and specificity He called this progressive differentiation. According to Ausubel the purpose of progressive differentiation is to increase the stability and clarity of anchoring ideas. The basic idea here is that, if you're teaching three related topics A, B and C, rather than teaching all of topic A, then going on to B, etc., you would take a spiral approach That is, in your first pass through the material, you would teach the "big" ideas (i.e., those highest in the hierarchy) in all three topics, then on successive passes you would begin to elaborate the details Along the way you would point out principles that the three topics had in common, and things that differentiated them." 2. Instructional materials should attempt to integrate new material with previously presented information through comparisons and cross-referencing of new and old ideas. Synapse Strengtheners 1. Read on the interrelatedness of Ausubel's theory with Gestall Psychology and Bruner's theory. Explain how their concepts and principles complement each other. L8.Bruner’s Constructivist Theory Introduction Jerome Bruner was one of the first proponents of constructivism. A major theme in the theory of Bruner is that learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge. "Learners are encouraged to discover facts and relationships for themselves." Jerome Bruner Advance Organizer Spiral Curriculum Bruner's Constructivist Theory (Main Concepts) Discovery Learning Representation of Knowledge Theory of Instruction Categorization Enactive Predisposition to Learn Iconic Structure of Knowledge Symbolic Effective Sequencing Reinforcement Jerome Bruner Bom New York City, October 1, 1915 He received his AB degree from Duke University in 1937 and his Ph.D in 1947 from Harvard. He was on the faculty in the Department of Psychokigy at Harvard University from 1952-1972 Next he was at Oxford from 1972 -1980. Later he joined the New York. University of Law In 1960 Bruner pub- lished The Process of Education. This was a landmark book. which led to much experimentation and a broad range of educational programs in the 1960's. Howard Gardner and other young researchers worked under Brune and were much-influ enced by his work work In the early 70's Bruner left Harvard to teach at University of Oxford for several years. He retumed to Harvard in 1979. Analysis Compare and contrast how the topic was taught to you in the different levels (Try to recall the activities, materials, details given, etc.) Why do you think the same topic was taught in the three different levels in school? Cite three or more reasons in bulleted form. Abstraction/Generalization In the activity you just had, you would have surely seen that a single topic can be taught in preschool/elementary, then again in high school, and still again in college! Take for instance, in learning about Jose Rizal, in elementary we may have his picture in a postcard, know that he is our national hero, born on June 19, 1861 in Calamba Laguna, and maybe even have a field trip there. In high school, we may study his two novels in more detail. In college, we would go deeper into analyzing Rizal's works and may look into the personal and social factors that influenced him in his life and work and write a term paper on it. This repeated topic on Rizal is way of applying the principles in Bruner's Theory. He gave us important concepts in development of representations, the spiral curriculum and discovery learning. These concepts are all in line with the constructivist approach. (Constructivism will be discussed in Module 14). Bruner's Main Concepts Representation Bruner suggested the ability to represent knowledge in three stages. These three stages also become the three ways to represent knowledge. 1. Enactive representation At the earliest ages, children learn about the world through actions on physical objects and the outcomes of these actions. Children represent objects in terms of their immediate sensation of them. They are represented in the muscles and involve motor responses, or ways to manipulate the environment (i.e. riding a bicycle and tying a knot, tasting the apple). 2. Iconic representation This second stage is when learning can be obtained through using models and pictures. The learner can now use mental images to stand for certain objects or events. Iconic representation allows one to recognize objects when they are changed in minor ways (e.g. mountains with and without snow at the top). 3. Symbolic representation In this third stage, the learner has developed the ability to think in abstract terms. This uses symbol system to encode knowledge. The most common symbol systems are language and mathematical notation. Bruner advised that teachers utilize and bring together concrete, pictorial then symbolic activities to facilitate learning. Before children can comprehend abstract mathematical operations, teachers can first have the numbers represented enactively (with blocks) and then, iconically (in pictures). Children can later on handle number concepts without concrete objects and only with numbers and number signs (symbolic). Spiral curriculum Bruner stressed that teaching should always lead to boosting cognitive development. Students will not understand the concept if teachers plan to teach it using only the teacher's level of understanding. Instruction needs to be anchored on the learners' cognitive capabilities. The task of the instructor is to translate information to be learned into a format appropriate to the learner's current state of understanding. Curriculum should be organized in a spiral manner so that the student continually builds upon what they have already learned. In a spiral curriculum, teachers must revisit the curriculum by teaching the same content in different ways depending on students' developmental levels. This is why certain topics are initially presented in grade school in a manner appropriate for grade schoolers, and then the same topic is tackled in high school, but on a much deeper level. Sometimes a topic can be revisited within the same semester or school year. For instance, the 14 learner-centered principles were introduced to you in Module and will again be tackled in Module 26. This time the 14 principles will be taken taken up in your other subjects like Child and Adolescent Development and up as an be tackled in Me and summarize all your dean this book are also Many other concepts Principles of you get a clearer understanding, thus more effective learning. Teaching to name a few. This is part of spiral Below are the principles of instruction stated by Bruner: 1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student willing and able to learn (readiness). 2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student (spiral organization). 3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going beyond the information given). Discovery learning Discovery learning refers to obtain plans and arranges activities in such obtaining knowledge for oneself. The teacher a way that students search, manipulate research the and such general problem-solving skills as formulating rules, testing and gathering information. Most discovery does not happen by chance. Studen require background preparation. Once students possess prerequisite knowledge Bruner (1966) states that a theory of instruction should address four ajor aspects: Predisposition to learn. He introduced the ideas of "readiness for learning". Bruner believed that any subject could be taught at any stage of development in a way that fits the child's cognitive abilities. This feature specifically states the experiences which move the learner toward a love of learning in general, or of learning something in particular. Motivational, cultural and personal factors contribute to this. Bruner emphasized social factors and early teacher's and parents' influence on this. He believed that learning and problem solving emerged out of exploration. Part of the task of a teacher is to maintain and direct a child's spontaneous explorations. Structure of Knowledge. This refers to the ways in which a body of knowledge can be structured so that it can be most readily grasped by the learner. Bruner emphasized the role of structure in learning and how it may be made central in teaching. Structure refers to relationships among factual elements and techniques. This will depend on different factors, and there will be many ways to structure a body of knowledge and many preferences among learners. Bruner offered considerable detail about structuring knowledge. 1. Understanding the fundamental structure of a subject makes it more comprehensible. Bruner viewed categorization as a fundamental process in the structuring of knowledge. Details are better retained when placed within the context of an ordered and structured pattern. 2. To generate knowledge which is transferable to other contexts, fundamental principles or patterns are best suited. 3. The discrepancy between beginning and advanced knowledge The discrepaarea is diminished when is means that a body in a subjand principles of orientation. This means the le body of knowledge must be in a form simple enough for the learner 10 understand and it must be in a form recognizable to the student' experience. 3. Effective sequencing. No one sequencing will fit every learner, but in general, the lesson can be presented in increasing difficulty. Sequencing or lack of it, can make learning easier or more difficult. Spiral curriculum refers to the idea of revisiting basic ideas over and over, building upon them and elaborating to the level of full understanding and mastery. 4. Reinforcement. Rewards and punishments should be selected and paced appropriately. He investigated motivation for learning. He felt that ideally, interest in the subject matter is the best stimulus for learning. Bruner did not like external competitive goals such as grades or class ranking. Categorization Bruner gave much attention to categorization of information in the construction of internal cognitive maps. He believed that perception, conceptualization, learning, decision making and making inferences all involved categorization. Categories are "rules" that specify four thing about objects. The four things are given below: 1. Criterial attributes required characteristics for inclusion of an objet in a category. (Example, for an object to be included in the category "car" it must have an engine, 4 wheels, and be a possible means of transportation, 2. The second rule prescribes how the criteral attributes are combined. 3. The third rule assigns weight to various properties. (Example, it could be a car even if a tire was missing, and if it was used for hauling cargoi would be shifted to a different category of "truck" or perhaps "van".) 4. The fourth rule sets acceptance limits on attributes. Some attributes ca vary widely, such as color. Others are fixed. For example a vehicle without an engine is not a car. Likewise, a vehicle with only two wheels wond not be included in "car". There are several kinds of categories: 1. Identity categories - categories include objects based on their attributes or features. 2. Equivalent categories (provide rules for combining categories Equivalence can be determined by affective criteria, which render objecs equivalent by emotional reactions, functional criteria, based on related functions (for example, "car", "truck", "van" could all be combined in an inclusive category called "motor vehicle"), or by formal criteria for example by science, law or cultural agreement. For example, apple is still an apple whether it is green, ripe, dried, etc (identity). food (functional), and it is a member of a botanical classification group (formal). 3. Coding systems are categories that serve to recognize sensory input. They are major organizational variables in higher cognitive functioning. Going beyond immediate sensory data involves making inferences on the basis of related categories. Related categories form a "coding system." These are hierarchical arrangements of related categories. The principles of Bruner launched the notion that people interpret the world mostly in terms of similarities and differences. This is a valuable contribution to how individuals construct their own models or view of the world.