Youth Media Effects PDF

Lecture 1 Introduction Gentile & Semsa (2003) Developmental approaches in understanding media effects The well-known extreme stories about the media effects are not the real media effects, because they oversimplify complex situations. Seven myths about media effects: 1. ‘Media effects are simple an...

Lecture 1 Introduction Gentile & Semsa (2003) Developmental approaches in understanding media effects The well-known extreme stories about the media effects are not the real media effects, because they oversimplify complex situations. Seven myths about media effects: 1. ‘Media effects are simple and direct’ The effects of media usually happen very subtly and they are mostly cumulative. We are not consciously aware of the effects. - E.g. advertisements alter our behaviour, but we are (mostly) not consciously aware of this. o People that claim that advertisements don’t have an effect on them, tend to be more influenced/affected (Greene, 1999) 2. ‘The effects of media violence are severe’ The largest effect of violent media is not illustrated by individual violent behaviour, but by the ‘culture of disrespect’. Killing someone is just a visible violent behaviour, but there are a lot of other behaviours that are violent as well, such as bullying. - The media effects of violent media are mostly named in the negative sense, such as feeling aggressive. But watching a violent movie can also make you excited, which is a positive media effect. This is commonly overlooked. 3. ‘Media effects are obvious’ Because the effects of media are cumulative and subtle they are easy to dismiss as the cause of a form of behaviour. But this doesn't mean we can’t see that. - E.g. we all know that smoking causes lung cancer, even though it’s due to the subtle and cumulative effects of cigarettes. The same applies to media effects, smoking does not always have the same effect on every person. 4. ‘Violent media affect everyone in the same way’ Four main effects of violent media: 1. Aggressor effect: the more violent media an individual consumes, the more aggressive, meaner, and violent they become. 2. Victim effect: the more violent media the individual watches the more they view the world as a scary place and the more they’ll initiate protective behaviours. 3. Bystander effect: the more violent media the individual consumes, the more desensitised, callous, and less sympathetic to the victim of violence they become. 4. Appetite effect: the more violent media the individual consumes, the more violent media they want to consume. 1  o Females tend to be more affected by the victim effect and males tend to be more affected by the aggressor, bystander, and appetite effect. o Even though it’s unclear how to predict what effect will be displayed, does not mean there is no effect. Everyone is affected by media: You inhibit the norms and values of your family members → your family is part of a community that influences your family with norms and values → your community is part of society and the norms and values of society are influenced by the media. - So even if you are not a direct consumer of media, you’ll still be influenced by it. But the effect can be different for everyone. 5. ‘Causality means “necessary and sufficient”’ Violent media is not the only reason for violent behaviour. - It’s not necessary for violent behaviour to happen because there are a lot of other causes that can lead to violent behaviour. - It’s not sufficient, because violent media on its own rarely causes violent behaviour. Most of the time, other factors play a huge role as well, such as mental health. 6. ‘Causality means immediacy’ The effect of violent media is usually visible 15 years after its release. That is the time it takes for a generation to grow up with the violent media and to reach a prime crime- committing age. - So the effect is usually visible in long term, but that doesn’t dismiss causality. 7. ‘Effects must be “big” to be important’ About 1 to 10% of the violent behaviour can be explained by violent media. Which is often dismissed as ‘too insignificant’ or ‘too small’. But if violent media is a steady cause of violent behaviour, it’s really important! Two approaches to development: 1) Developmental tasks approach - Developmental task = a capacity or skill that is important for concurrent and future adaptation This approach has been used for two purposes: 1. It provides a set of criteria to judge adaptation at any given moment in the development. 2. A framework to understand how development unfolds over childhood. 2 Principles within this approach: - There is a hierarchy in these developmental tasks. Different issues rise in importance depending on the child’s developmental level. - Later tasks are contingent on the success with which earlier tasks were negotiated. So adaptation is seen as cumulative; it builds up on prior adaption. - Future development progress is not determined or fixed as a result of earlier tasks. It’s dynamic, it’s a process. - While change is possible it is constrained by prior adaptation. Major developmental tasks: - Infancy: o Attachment to caregiver(s) o Regularity of patterns - Toddlerhood: o Learning language o Independence of actions - Early childhood: o Learning emotional self-control o Learning gender roles and stereotypes - Middle childhood: o Adjusting to school o Learning how to build friendships and to be accepted by peers - Adolescence: o Developing a personal identity o Adjustment to secondary schooling Example media violence in this approach - There is a wrestling TV-show where two women need to wrestle in the mud and they need to take the bra from the other opponent in order to win. While they are wrestling a man is making sexist jokes and remarks about the women. How does this affect children? - Infants: not much of an effect, unless the program interferes with the parents raising. However, at this age, they learn social norms and values, so they will view violence as the answer to interpersonal conflict. - Early childhood: at this age, self-control is gained. The program shows no self- control; words are not used to resolve conflict, which worsens the situation. And because everything happened on the man’s terms, a child can note that women need to do what men want to gain approval. - Middle childhood: they will define competence in terms of the ability to fight. - Adolescence: it teaches that men having power over women is ‘normal’. And that physical violence between sexes is okay. 3 2) A risk and resilience approach to development Focus on differential life experiences among children that may put them at risk for future maladaptation (risk factors), and those factors that are severe to ‘protect’ children from this risk exposure (protective factors). - Media violence is a risk factor for all children, but some children have a lot of protective factors, so there will be no negative outcome. And others have extra risk factors, which will lead to negative outcomes. Such as violent behaviour. But that also has different levels of severity. o Cumulative risk model (Masten, 2001): the more risks encountered by a child, the greater the likelihood of problematic functioning. o Some children are resilient. They experience successful outcomes, despite adversity. Resilience is seen as a result of multiple protective factors. Subrahmanyam & Šmahel (2011)–Digital Youth chapter 4: Constructing Identity Online: Identity Exploration and Self-Presentation Formulating an identity is a huge adolescent developmental task. = “An identity is, at least in part, an explicit theory of oneself as a person”. Identity during adolescence Erikson talked about the ego identity: the integration of existing accumulated experience, skills, talents, and opportunities offered by various social roles into one compact and complex identity. - He argued that adolescents who explore alternative roles and identities will be more likely to be satisfied with their identity. Marcia viewed identity as a process and developed an approach to measure an adolescent’s identity status at any given point. Exploration and commitment were key in this approach: - Exploration: when an adolescent is drawn into the process of choice and decision- making over the issues of relations, religion, lifestyle, or jobs. - Commitment: the acceptance of certain goals and life programs, and entails an individual taking responsibility for their choices and actions. - Four states of identity: 1. Foreclosed identity: commitment, but no exploration. a. The adolescent is satisfied with their sense of identity, it is drawn from authority figures and they tend to be rigid and conformist. 2. Identity diffusion: no crisis, nor commitment, as well as no exploration. a. Adolescents who are easily influenced by peers. They’ll often change their opinions and behaviour, to fit in a group. 3. Moratorium: no commitment, but there is exploration. 4  a. The adolescents have a crisis about their identity. They experience anxiety and doubt. They can explore and try out new roles without committing to them. 4. Identity achievement: there is commitment and exploration. a. The adolescent experiences a crisis about their identity, explores, and eventually commits to a sense of self. These youth tend to have a positive self- image, and are flexible, and independent. The development of identity is extremely influenced by peers and family. They can provide support and feedback and serve as a mirror for when an adolescent tests different aspects of their self-definition. - Having problems with friends is negatively associated with adolescent identity. McAdams views identity as an ongoing and fluid process; it’s never established. - He says that individuals on the brink of adulthood construct narratives or dynamic internal life stories about themselves and those form the basis of their identities. Types of identity: - Personal identity: based on self-assessment and self-reflection. - Social identity: connected to feelings of inclusion or belonging to one’s social context or social group. - Gender identity: the different social roles linked to gender. - Ethnic identity: an enduring, fundamental aspect of the self that includes the sense of membership in an ethnic group. Online self-representation and virtual identity The two meanings of online identity and virtual identity: 1. Identity is an identification and self-presentation of the individual on the internet. a. Individuals have a virtual representation rather than an actual physical presence within digital contexts. = a cluster of digital data about a user in a virtual context and includes a name/username, email, online history, and status within that virtual setting. 2. A sophisticated conceptualisation of an individual’s online self or persona. a. The thoughts, ideas, visions, or fantasies that users attribute to their virtual representations are comprised. i. Personal virtual identity: who I am as a person in a particular virtual environment. ii. Social virtual identity: where an individual belongs in a particular virtual world. Adolescent’s online identity construction Adolescents develop an identity offline and online. Online can offer some anonymity, which can promote the freedom to explore/experiment. So, how does identity construction happen online? 5 Tools for online self-presentation - Nicknames Adolescents choose a nickname based on their gender, interests, and intention (attracting the other sex e.g.) o Age/sex/location is frequently used in chat rooms. This can provide the reader with a basic perception of the person. Note: this applies to the USA. § Age and sex are also the primary categories to which people are assigned in face-to-face communication. - Avatars If a young user can see his or her complete graphic representation, including face, figure, clothes, and equipment, it opens extra room to identify with the virtual representation itself. - Photos and videos Young individuals tend to post more photos (in this text, they talked about blogs (2011)). This is probably because younger people are more technically skilled and at ease with creating and publishing user pictures. o It’s unresearched how the publication of photos relates to their identity development. Identity expression and self-presentation in blogs and homepages Two studies that have gained a picture of young people’s online identity construction: 1. Blog study - Subrahmanyam, 2009 - 195 blogs of teens were researched. - A lot of usage of nicknames and user pictures. - Themes like romance, sexuality, and behaviour problems were avoided. - The blogs were narrative and reflective in style, focused on their everyday activities. o Although the teens did not often write about identity, their posts could have contributed to their construction of an identity. 2. Personal homepages study - Schmitt, 2008 - A survey with 500 teens: o The feel like sharing information via a homepage is easier than face-to-face. - 72 homepages were evaluated: o They wrote about their interests, relations, and values. - Girls and older adolescents provided more information about themselves. o This parallels the offline world. These studies show that teens’ usage of technology isn’t for the active identity construction, but for self-expression and for sharing information with peers. Identity expression and self-presentation in social networking Social networking sites (e.g. Facebook) seem to be primarily used for connecting with peers, but aspects of identity expression and presentation have been found within them. 6  - Younger adolescents reported presenting their identity more often on social networking sites. Researchers discovered that several constructions of identity were explored while using the social network. - They also found an “increased pressure on young women to objectify their sexuality while also preserving their innocence may be a confusing and detrimental influence on their development”. Online behaviour and identity status The potential role of the internet for individuals in the four statuses proposed by Marcia. 1. Foreclosed identity Their committed identity, was chosen without any crisis of active exploration. This happens mostly early on in adolescence. Online contexts can help with this process, allowing youth to experiment with their identity earlier than they would ‘dare’ in reality. 2. Diffused identity These adolescents have low self-confidence and problems in interpersonal relationships. Online environments can become a safe haven for these individuals. Note: this is a speculation! 3. Moratorium Adolescents who are concerned about their identity and have not yet committed. Online environments can help them to explore and experiment with this even more than offline. o While online, these adolescents frequently break norms and rules that are common in offline life. 4. Identity achievement These adolescents have experienced an identity crisis and commitment. The virtual environment can reflect the user's current goals and values via a safe ‘return’ to the moratorium phase. This can form a cycle. Ethnic identity online Unmonitored chat rooms contained a lot of racial remarks and slurs. But teens note that they also learn about ethnicities in these chat rooms. - E.g. how it feels to be oppressed. - Six typical racialised roles: 1. Discussant 2. Witness 3. Target 4. Friend 5. Sympathiser 7  6. Social networking sites, which are more private, provide opportunities for ethnic construction. a. I.e. feeling safe to express/show your ethnicity. Identity experiments and pretending Popular misconception: adolescents are pretending to be someone else online. - Youth are indeed pretending to be someone else, but they do this offline as well. o When teens lie online, they tend to do so to improve their image among others. - So pretending to be someone else can be labeled as identity experimentation. Virtual identity According to Thomas, virtual identities are constructed on the feeling of belonging to a virtual group. The technical skills of an adolescent also belong to this. - It is very flexible and changes in accordance with current cultural icons. Turkle has claimed that creating fragmented virtual identities can help individuals overcome difficulties in their real lives. - Reid argued that this actually may prevent the development of a flexible and complete personality. Virtual relationships lack continuity, offline ones don’t, says Reid. 8 Lecture 2 Media effect theories Valkenburg & Oliver (2019) Media effects theories: an overview. Mass communication theories arose during the 1920s and referred to the size of the audience that media could reach, the homogenous media use, and the media effects. - The media has changed since then and so did the theories. What is a media effects theory? Media effects theory = a theory that attempts to explain the uses and effects of media on individuals, groups, or societies as a whole. - Media use = the intended or incidental use of media channels, devices, content/messages, or all types of platforms, tools, or apps. - Media effects = the deliberate and non-deliberate short- and long-term individual or collective changes in cognitions, emotions, attitudes, and behaviour that result from media use. - ➔ The distinction between ‘models’ and ‘theories’ tends to be very unclear, so they are used interchangeably. Prominent media effects theories All the publications from communication journals over the past 65 years have been analysed. Findings: - Main focus on ‘mass communication’ rather than ‘media effects theories’. o They are used interchangeably, but ‘mass communication’ is way broader than ‘media effects theories’. - Mass communication, not only includes the effects, but also the production, consumption, distribution, and policies. - Other theories that are not necessarily media effects theories can still explain some media effects, but can’t be considered a media effects theory. Evergreen media effects theories Evergreen theories = top-cited theories in both the earliest bibliometric study (1956-200) and in two to four bibliometric studies that covered subsequent periods. There are six evergreen media effects theories: 1. Cultivation theory 2. Agenda-setting theory 3. Diffusion of innovations theory 4. Uses and gratification theory 5. Social learning/social cognitive theory 6. Media system dependency theory There were also others. 9 Over time changes in the prominence of theories Some theories lose their relevance, due to: - The research inspired by the theory often fails to produce convincing results. - There was a cognitive turn in media effects theories, around the 1980s and 1990s. o This led to increased attention to the internal cognitive processes of media users. - Some of the classic theories were adjusted to fit better in the current time. Upcoming media effects theories The evergreen studies don’t completely cover the past decade of media effects research. - The media and technology was changing very rapidly, so the theories needed to change as well or new theories should be developed. Trends in the media effects papers: 1. The emergence of theories that attempt to explain the uses and effects of media entertainment. a) Why and how exposure to narrative entertainment lead to less resistance than traditional persuasive messages? 2. An emphasis on media entertainment and emotional media processing. 3. The traditional gap between media effects and CMC (computer-mediated communication) studies seems to have narrowed in the past years. a) The significant changes in media use in the past decade have been an important impetus for this trend. Core features of contemporary media effects theories The contemporary theories seem to be more comprehensive. Three core features: 1. The selectivity paradigm The view that individuals predominantly select media messages that serve their needs, goals, and beliefs. - E.g. Uses-and-gratifications (1973) and Selective Exposure Theory (2014). 1) Individuals only attend to a limited number of messages out of the miscellaneous messages that can potentially attract their attention. 2) Media use is a result of dispositional, situational, or social-context factors. 3) Only those messages they select have the potential to influence them. a. This influence is called ‘obtained gratifications’. 2. The transactionality paradigm Theories that conceptualise media use and media outcomes as reciprocally related. They embrace a user-oriented approach. 1) Certain dispositions of media users can cause their selective media use. 2) Which can, in turn, cause certain outcomes. 3) Which can, then, further cause selective media use. 10  3. The conditionality paradigm Media effects do not equally hold for all media users, and that media effects can be contingent on dispositional, situational, and social-context factors. Challenges and opportunities for future media effects research 1. Conceptualising ‘media use 2.0’ 2. New methods to assess cognitive and emotional media processing 3. The effects of ‘mass self-communication’ 11 Lecture 3 Online gaming culture Sirola et al.–2021-the role of virtual communities in gambling and gaming behaviors: a systematic review The aim of the study: to summarise earlier research on online gambling and gaming communities and their role in gambling and monetary gaming behaviours. The blurring line between gaming and gambling - Gambling = risk-involving, chance-determined outcomes and monetary features, such as wagering and betting mechanisms. - Gaming = interactive, skill-based play and contextual relevance in-game progress and success. - These lines have become more blurred due to technological divergence. Games now use microtransactions; the player can buy in-game equipment with real-world money. - E.g. loot boxes. - This is a form of gambling because it has the same chance-determined features. - It has been suggested that due to many similarities between gambling and gaming, playing video games would increase a desire to gamble; but recent research has not fully supported this. - There is an increasing number of social media platforms that offer games with gambling features. o Although these types of games are often perceived as harmless and safe alternatives for real-money gambling, their gambling-like characteristics may also trigger motivation for real gambling and teach mechanisms of gambling to children and adolescents Online communities: social dimension of gambling and gaming Humans have a basic need for social belonging and relatedness, that’s why we engage a lot in virtual communities. People tend to homophily in these communities. = groups of people sharing social interactions, social ties, and virtual spaces for interactions. Communities are characterized by shared interests, goals, and norms that unite like-minded individuals. = to seek for and interact with similar others. - Social media research shows that people often rely on information and content provided by their in-group members. o Particularly when talking about potentially addictive behaviours, identifying with an online community can influence intentions and attitudes toward harmful direction and normalise maladaptive behaviour. 12 Research questions 1. What is the role of virtual gambling communities in gambling behaviour? 2. What is the role of virtual gaming communities in monetary gaming behaviour? 3. Are there notable qualitative differences between virtual gambling and gaming communities? Method The 1056 articles were gathered around July 2018 from a few different research sites. 55 articles fit a few criteria: 1. The article empirically examines participation or social interaction in online communities or networks related to gambling or gaming involving money. Participation or interaction can include aspects such as participation frequency, motivation, level of identification, or shared content between users. 2. The article empirically examines behavioural factors associated with participation or social interaction in an online community or networks related to gambling or gaming involving money. Behavioural factors can include aspects such as virtual purchase behaviour, frequency of gambling or gaming behaviours, or other kinds of gambling and gaming behaviours involving money. a. Consequently, studies were excluded if they did not mention gambling, monetary gaming, or social interaction between gamblers and gamers; if they were theoretical articles or literature reviews; book or conference introductions; or were not published in English. Conclusions - Online communities serve different functions in gambling and gaming behaviours. - Gambling communities are typically forums for discussing and sharing gambling experiences, strategies, and tips as well as gambling problems, while gaming communities are inherently embedded inside a game being an essential part of the gaming experience. - Identification with virtual communities influences gambling behaviour and monetary gaming behaviour through mechanisms of perceived norms, social influence, and community feedback. o Whereas some gambling communities may protect from excessive gambling habits, gaming communities seem to solely motivate gaming behaviour and purchase intentions. Pirrone et al. – 2023- Why we can’t stop A lot of adolescents are addicted to gaming. That’s no surprise when you keep in mind that profit-oriented companies make the games. So they will use a lot of psychological mechanisms to keep as many players as possible engaged with the game for as long as possible. 13 Common rewards in current video games - Variable ratio schedules rewards. So the chance of getting the rare/good items is small, so it becomes a gamble. o This type of reward is the most consistent in giving a response. - Contingencies rewards: rewards that reward for consistent engagement. So a log-in reward/bonus. o This reward makes use of the operant conditioning. - Meta-achievements: giving players an overall assessment of how ‘far’ they have come in the game. o They use this especially after the game is completed to keep the player engaged. - Social rewards: a lot of adolescents use gaming to interact with their peers. This is encouraged by the game makers. They make the opportunities to be part of a community and it offers a conversation topic/interest. - The motivational needs of gamers: o Competence (challenges and progression) o Autonomy (freedom of choice and interaction) o Relatedness (affiliations with others) - All these rewards can have a problematic impact on vulnerable people - with low self- regulation and impulse control. They are at a higher risk of problematic gaming. Individual vulnerabilities and videogames playing According to the differential susceptibility to media effects model every individual has a different response to media effects. It depends on three components: 1. Dispositional: temperament. 2. Developmental: age of the child. 3. Social: peer culture or parents' media monitoring. People with ADHD or high impulsivity have an increased risk of displaying problematic gaming behaviour. - Players with problems regarding their social competencies may be specifically sensitive to the socially rewarding effects of certain games. o Due to gaming being an area they experience fewer social demands, more social connectedness, greater mastery, and an escape from their daily struggles in the face-to-face social world. - Aim of this study: researching the association between rewarding elements in games and problematic gaming behaviour, and the moderating role of individual vulnerability markers such as ADHD and perceived social competence in a sample of young adolescents. - The research questions: 1. Are certain rewarding gaming elements associated with problematic gameplay? 14  2. Do individual vulnerabilities (attentional disorder, impulsivity, hyperactivity, social competence) amplify the association between certain rewarding game features and problematic gameplay? Method - Participants o Only adolescents who were recent game players (in the last 3 months) were included in the sample of 2708 participants. § 53.9% male and 46.1% female. § Ages between 11 and 17 years (M = 13.94, SD = 1.20). § Most participants (80.9%) had a Dutch background. - Measures o Rewards in games → open ended question about the most recently played game. That game was evaluated and the type of rewards were identified. o ADHD → ADHD questionnaire. o Social competence → the subscale “Close Friendships” of a Dutch version of the Harters’ Self Perception Profile of Adolescents. o Gaming behaviour → asking if they played games and if yes, how long. o Internet gaming disorder → Internet Gaming Disorder Scale. Conclusion - Random, social, and contingencies rewards were associated with adolescents’ problematic gaming in both cohorts. o Games including these rewards were associated with an increased risk for problematic gameplay. - The results indicated that the association between contingencies rewards and problematic gaming behaviour was stronger for adolescents with ADHD symptoms, while the association between social rewards and problematic gaming was stronger for adolescents with social problems. Sawyer, S. (2020). Oh Me, Oh My! Identity Development Through Video Games. In: Kowert, R. (eds) Video Games and Well-being. This chapter delves into the ways video games foster identity exploration and development, emphasizing the psychological, social, and cultural implications of engaging with digital spaces. Games provide a platform where players can safely experiment with their self-concept, navigate social dynamics, and reflect on their values. Identity Exploration Drawing on Erik Erikson’s psychosocial development theory, the chapter highlights the significance of the fifth stage, identity vs. role confusion. This stage, which typically occurs during adolescence, involves individuals exploring various roles and values to form a 15 cohesive sense of self. Video games offer a unique medium for this exploration, as they allow players to experiment with identities in a structured yet flexible way. - Example: A player might adopt a heroic persona in a fantasy game, confronting ethical dilemmas that challenge their real-world values. This process helps them solidify their personal beliefs in a low-risk environment. Avatars and Customization Avatars—the digital representations of players—play a pivotal role in identity exploration. Customization tools in games let players choose their appearance, gender, race, and abilities, enabling them to experiment with aspects of their identity. This customization fosters a sense of agency (control over their representation) and autonomy (freedom to express themselves). - Example: Games like The Sims or World of Warcraft provide detailed avatar customization options, letting players create characters that reflect idealized versions of themselves, experiment with new traits, or even embody identities they’re curious about but cannot safely express in real life. Psychological Insight: Customization also taps into the concept of possible selves, where players imagine and test different versions of who they might become. Role-Playing and Perspective-Taking Role-playing mechanics in games encourage players to embody characters with different perspectives, promoting empathy and self-awareness. Narrative-driven games, such as The Witcher or Mass Effect, present players with moral and ethical choices that require reflection on their personal values. - Example: When a player decides whether to save a village or pursue personal gain, they engage in moral reasoning, which can deepen their understanding of their own beliefs. Concepts Explained: - Perspective-taking: The act of imagining the world from another’s viewpoint, often facilitated by stepping into a character’s role. - Empathy: The ability to understand and share the feelings of others, which can be developed through narrative choices and character-driven stories. Social Identity in Multiplayer Games Multiplayer games like Fortnite or League of Legends emphasize the formation and reinforcement of social identity, a term from social identity theory that describes the part of an individual’s self-concept derived from group membership. Players often align with specific in-game groups (guilds, teams, or factions), which fosters a sense of belonging and shared purpose. 16  - Example: Being part of a guild in World of Warcraft can create strong bonds among players, reinforcing their social capital (the networks of relationships that provide support and resources). Key Dynamics: - Bridging social capital: Forming new, weak ties with a diverse group of players. - Bonding social capital: Developing deeper connections with close-knit groups, like in cooperative missions. Games as a Safe Space One of the chapter’s central arguments is that video games act as a low-risk environment for identity experimentation. Players can try out new identities, behaviors, and social roles without fear of real-world repercussions. This is particularly significant for individuals from marginalized or stigmatized groups who may not feel safe expressing themselves offline. - Example: A transgender player might experiment with their gender identity in a game like Cyberpunk 2077, which allows for flexible character creation. This can serve as a stepping stone for self-acceptance. Concepts: - Identity moratorium: A period of exploration where individuals actively test different roles without committing to any, often facilitated by games. - Self-affirmation: Validating one’s identity through positive experiences, which games can provide through mastery and social recognition. Educational and Therapeutic Potential The chapter also highlights the use of video games in therapy and education to support identity development. By providing controlled environments, games can help individuals: - Overcome social anxiety by practicing interactions in multiplayer games. - Build self-efficacy (belief in one’s ability to succeed) through achieving in-game goals. - Example: Games like Journey or Life is Strange are often used in therapy to encourage self-reflection and foster emotional growth. Key Takeaways: 1. Avatars and customization tools empower players to explore and express their identities. 2. Role-playing mechanics facilitate self-reflection and empathy by allowing players to step into different perspectives. 3. Social interactions in multiplayer games strengthen players' sense of community and reinforce their social identity. 4. Video games provide a safe space for testing new identities, especially for those facing real-world constraints. 17  5. Narrative choices in games enable players to navigate ethical dilemmas, fostering deeper self-awareness. This chapter underscores that video games are not just entertainment; they are powerful tools for personal growth, social connection, and identity affirmation. 18 Lecture 4 Misinformation Breakstone, J., Smith, M., Wineburg, S., Rapaport, A., Carle, J., Garland, M., & Saavedra, A. (2021). Students’ civic online reasoning: A national portrait. Educational researcher,50(8), 505-515. 1. What is the aim of the article? The aim of the article is to assess high school students' ability to evaluate the credibility and reliability of online information, a skill referred to as Civic Online Reasoning (COR). The study explores how well students can discern trustworthy information amidst the overwhelming amount of digital content they encounter daily. It also investigates how these abilities vary across demographic and socioeconomic groups. 2. What are important terms and explain them? - Civic Online Reasoning (COR): A focused skill set enabling individuals to evaluate online information critically, including identifying the source, verifying evidence, and cross-checking with reliable references. This is essential for responsible civic engagement. - Lateral Reading: A technique employed by professional fact-checkers that involves leaving a website to investigate the claims and sources on other platforms, rather than focusing solely on the content of the original site. - Mastery, Emerging, Beginning (Rubric Levels): Levels of skill proficiency used in the study. "Mastery" indicates strong understanding, "Emerging" shows partial understanding, and "Beginning" reflects limited or incorrect evaluation skills. - Digital Misinformation: False or misleading information spread online, which can manipulate or deceive users. 3. What are the results of the article? - Widespread Struggles: Most students struggled with evaluating online information, with 96.8% scoring at the "Beginning" level for tasks like determining the reliability of a climate change website. - Task Performance: Only 8.7% of students demonstrated "Mastery" in evaluating evidence on social media. Tasks requiring lateral reading were particularly challenging, with fewer than 2% using this approach effectively. - Demographic Variations: Performance differences were observed across grade levels, socioeconomic status (e.g., eligibility for free/reduced-price lunch), and maternal education. Urban students performed better on average than rural and suburban students. - Composite Scores: The mean composite score was 0.17 out of 2, indicating generally poor performance nationwide. 19 4. What are the implications of the article? - Educational Urgency: The findings highlight the urgent need to integrate COR skills into the education system to prepare students for informed civic participation in a digital age. - Targeted Interventions: Curricular changes must address the specific challenges of online reasoning, particularly in underserved communities where socioeconomic status significantly impacts digital literacy. - Policy and Research: A national-level response akin to historical education reforms (e.g., post-Sputnik era) is recommended to combat the detrimental effects of digital misinformation on democracy. 5. Are there any limitations? If yes, explain them. Yes, the study acknowledges several limitations: - Sampling Bias: The sample was not fully random or nationally representative, as participation relied on district willingness and logistical feasibility. - Low-Stakes Nature: The assessment did not influence students' grades, potentially leading to less engagement or effort. - Uncontrolled Online Environment: The open-internet nature of the tasks introduced variability in how students approached the assessments, making standardized evaluation challenging. - Exclusion of Political Beliefs: The study did not account for how students' political orientations might have influenced their evaluations of contentious sources. Tay, L. Q., Lewandowsky, S., Hurlstone, M. J., Kurz, T., & Ecker, U. K. (2024). Thinking clearly about misinformation. Communications Psychology,2(1), 4. 1. Aim of the Article The article aims to clarify debates surrounding the role of misinformation in societal problems. It emphasizes the multidimensionality of misinformation, arguing that it can act both as a symptom and a cause of social issues. The authors propose a nuanced evaluation framework for assessing misinformation's impact and its potential interventions, particularly considering the heterogeneity in topics, types, and dissemination methods. 2. Important Terms and Their Explanations - Misinformation: False or misleading information, which can alter beliefs and behaviors. The article distinguishes misinformation types such as truthiness, systemic lies, bullshit, and shock-and-chaos. - Multidimensionality: The concept that misinformation's impact varies based on topic, type, and depth. 20  - Directed Acyclic Graphs (DAGs): Graphical tools used to model and illustrate causal relationships, showing how misinformation interacts with other societal factors. - Narrative Gist: The distilled essence of a narrative, which can spread even if the original misinformation source is absent. - Paltering: Misleading through selective or slanted presentation of truthful information, often used to sway opinions without outright falsehoods. 3. Results of the Article The article finds that misinformation has measurable impacts under specific conditions and can perpetuate societal issues like polarization and distrust in institutions. Observational and experimental studies confirm misinformation's causal role in shaping beliefs and behaviors, though its effects vary significantly depending on the context, depth, and type. The article highlights a tendency in existing research to underestimate misinformation's scale and complexity by focusing narrowly on specific types or contexts. 4. Implications of the Article The study calls for: - Developing more comprehensive frameworks to evaluate misinformation impacts, avoiding false dichotomies (symptom vs. cause). - Adopting global, comparative perspectives to assess misinformation's effects across varied cultural and socio-political contexts. - Recognizing the role of heterogeneity to better tailor interventions and policies. - Leveraging advanced research methods, including causal inference models and cognitive-science approaches, to address gaps in understanding misinformation. 5. Limitations - Bias Towards Western Frameworks: Much of the existing literature focuses on liberal-democratic contexts, leaving out insights from non-Western or less democratic societies. - Neglect of Narrative Depth: Prevalence studies often overlook how narrative gists derived from misinformation continue to influence beliefs. - Restricted Scope of Interventions: Many intervention studies emphasize short- term or superficial misinformation without addressing deeper, more persuasive content. - Ethical and Feasibility Constraints: The study of misinformation's effects is hampered by difficulties in ethically exposing individuals to harmful misinformation and obtaining access to sensitive data (e.g., social media or private communications). 21 Altay et al.-2023-A survey of expert views on misinformation: Definitions, determinants, solutions, and future of the field 1. What is the aim of the article? The aim of the article is to explore expert views on misinformation, focusing on its definitions, determinants, potential solutions, and future directions for research. The study does not aim to provide a definitive definition of misinformation, but rather to document how experts across various disciplines define the concept. It also seeks to identify areas of agreement and disagreement among experts in the field. 2. What are important terms and explain them? - Misinformation: The most popular definition among the surveyed experts is "false and misleading information". However, there is a divergence of views regarding the importance of intentionality in the definition. Some experts include the intent to deceive as a component of misinformation, while others do not. o False information: Information that is factually incorrect. o Misleading information: Information that is presented in a way that may lead to false conclusions, even if the information is not factually incorrect5. o Intentionality: Refers to whether the person sharing the false or misleading information did so on purpose or unintentionally. - Pseudoscience and conspiracy theories are generally considered to be examples of misinformation, whereas satirical and parodical news are not. - There is less agreement regarding propaganda, rumors, hyperpartisan news, and clickbait headlines. Psychologists are more likely to consider these as misinformation compared to political scientists. 3. What are the results of the article? - Definitions of Misinformation: Experts vary in their definitions of misinformation. Qualitative researchers are more likely to include the intentionality of the sharer in the definition compared to quantitative researchers. Psychologists have broader definitions compared to political scientists. - Reasons for Believing and Sharing Misinformation: The most agreed-upon reasons why people believe and share misinformation are partisanship, identity, confirmation bias, motivated reasoning, and lack of trust in institutions. Lack of education is considered a less significant factor. - Social Media: Experts agree that social media platforms have worsened the misinformation problem, although people are also exposed to more opposing viewpoints online than offline. - Effectiveness of Interventions: Experts are generally optimistic about the effectiveness of interventions against misinformation, especially when widely adopted. They favor platform design changes, algorithmic changes, and content moderation. 22  - Future Directions: Experts emphasize the importance of collecting more data outside of the United States, doing more interdisciplinary work, studying subtler forms of misinformation, studying other platforms than Twitter and Facebook, and developing better theories and interventions. 4. What are the implications of the article? - The lack of consensus on the definition of misinformation could lead to confusion and affect policy responses. The study highlights the importance of explicitly defining misinformation in scientific research and policy. - The findings can inform the development of more effective interventions by highlighting the importance of partisanship and other factors in the spread of misinformation. - Experts support platform actions against misinformation, such as design changes and content moderation. - The study underscores the need for more research outside of the United States, more interdisciplinary collaborations, and a focus on subtler forms of misinformation. 5. Are there any limitations? - The majority of experts surveyed are from the Global North, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to countries in the Global South. - The study did not establish a causal relationship between different definitions of misinformation and opinions across disciplines. It remains unclear whether disagreements about the role of misinformation in the 2016 US election are directly caused by different definitions of misinformation. - The sample size of certain groups of experts, such as political scientists and psychologists, is relatively small, which may affect the statistical power of certain analyses. - The researchers could not guarantee that all participants were experts on misinformation, although the risk of including non-experts was considered very low. 23 Lecture 5 Parenting Geurts et al. –2023-Parenting Practices and General Parenting dimensions Problematic social media use is becoming an increasing problem among adolescents. Parents want to prevent this by using internet-specific parenting practices. types of internet-specific parenting practices: - Three types of internet-specific parenting practices: o Internet-specific rules o Reactive restrictions o Co-use - Three key dimensions that define general parenting styles: 1. Responsiveness: affective warmth, acceptance, and emotional support. 2. Demandingness: placing limits and setting boundaries to guide children’s behaviour and implementing consequences for disobedience. 3. Autonomy-granting: the extent to which parents support their children’s independence. o E.g. allowing and encouraging their children to make their own decisions, express their ideas, and have their own opinions. Research questions 1. Whether and how do these profiles relate to (changes in) adolescents’ level of problematic social media use? a. In addition, the moderating effects of adolescents’ gender and age will be tested. Parenting profiles based on various internet-specific parenting practices and general parenting dimensions Four parenting styles: 1) Authoritative; high on responsiveness, demandingness, and autonomy- granting. 2) Authoritarian; high demandingness, low responsiveness, and autonomy- granting. 3) Permissive; high responsiveness and autonomy-granting, and low demandingness. 4) Negligent; low on all three dimensions. It’s expected that parents' internet-specific parenting would align with their general parenting style. However research found that this is not the case. So there are a lot of combinations possible. Method Participants - 400 adolescents (T1: M age = 13.51 years, SD = 2.15) 24  - 54% girls and 46% boys. - Age 9 to 19 years. Measures - Adolescents’ problematic social media use → The Social Media Disorder scale. - Internet-specific rule setting → asking 1) can you use the internet as long as you want? 2) can you use it for more than 3 hours? 3) use the internet while homework isn’t finished? 4) use the internet before going to sleep? 5) do you bring your device to your bedroom? 6) have your device with you while doing homework? 7) having your device at the dinner table and 8) using your device while talking with your parents? - Parenting dimensions → asking adolescents how their parents are. Conclusions - Latent profile analysis identified three parenting profiles: o Limiting and less supportive (13.5%) o Tolerant and supportive (25.5%) o Limiting and supportive (60.8%). - Membership to Tolerant and supportive predicted lower scores on prospective problematic social media use than membership to the other profiles. - Besides, membership to Limiting and supportive predicted lower scores on problematic social media use than membership to Limiting and less supportive. - No robust moderation effects of adolescents’ age and gender were found. - These findings suggest that a supportive general parenting context rather than Internet use restrictions should be the focus when considering the prevention of adolescents’ problematic social media use. Vossen et al.-2024-Parenting and Problematic Social media use: a systematic review Research question How do parents influence adolescents’ Problematic social media use (PSMU)? Method 36 studies about parenting and problematic social media use were analysed. Conclusions - There is consistent evidence that positive parent-child relationships, as well as a positive family climate at home, are related to less PSMU. - Similarly, most studies indicate that positive parenting, and parenting that is characterised by affection, responsiveness, and demandingness is associated with less PSMU, whereas parenting characterised by inconsistency and control is associated with more PSMU. 25 - Regarding Internet-specific parenting, the overall picture is less consistent. There is some evidence that restrictive mediation is related to less PSMU, but this only seems to hold for parental rule setting (i.e., parents setting rules about when, where, and how long adolescents are allowed to use social media). Reactive restrictions (i.e., active intervening when adolescents are engaged in social media use), on the other hand, seem to be linked to more PSMU. Active mediation (i.e., parenting directed towards supporting and guiding social media use) is not consistently related to PSMU. - Finally, studies indicated that parental phubbing (i.e., parental social media use during parent-child interactions) are related to more PSMU. All but two studies in this review had a cross-sectional design. 26 Lecture 6 Mental health Valkenburg et al. –2022-Social media use and its impact on adolescent mental health There is a huge increase in the research of SMU in link to adolescent’s well-being, due to two reasons: 1. SMU occupies an ever-growing part of adolescents' daily lives, whereas, at the same time, adolescents do not easily accept parental regulation of this use. 2. Adolescence is the stage in life in which well-being shows the most fluctuations, in which risk-taking is at its peak, and in which mental disorders, such as depression, typically emerge. Aims of this umbrella review: 1. General characteristics of existing reviews, such as the type of review (meta-analytic, systematic, narrative). 2. The conceptualization of SMU and mental health or its constituent outcomes. 3. The interpretation of the effects of SMU on these outcomes (e.g. weak, inconsistent, strong). 4. The gaps in the evidence base and directions for future research. Methods 25 reviews: - 7 meta-analyses - 9 systematic - 9 narrative reviews Discussion 1. Consistently conceptualising the key concepts. 2. Using fewer self-reports and more fitting measurements. 3. Understanding the inconsistent interpretations, instead of glamorising the inconclusive findings. Kross et al. –2021-Social media and well-being: Pitfalls, progress, and next steps. Social media has become an increased influence in people’s lives all over the world. With that in mind, how does social media use influence our emotional well-being? Does the overall amount of time that people spend on social media influence their well- being? The first papers researching the link between social media use and well-being were mostly cross-sectional with self-reports. - These findings were inconsistent. These contradictory findings elicited another wave of research. 27 The second wave of papers was more longitudinal and used different methods, such as experience sampling. - But these findings were inconclusive as well. - Two features that made the second type of research challenging to conclude: o They were not consistent in how they operationalize and assess social media use or well-being. o The self-report measures of social media usage that many of these studies use have questionable validity. How does the overall amount of time that people spend on social media influence their well-being? Focus on two psychological processes that influence people’s functioning: 1. Self-presentation Erving Goffman proposed the theory that life is like a performance. We are always acting to manage the way people perceive us. This is a built-in process that we cannot escape from. a. We have limited control over the things that happen in real life/offline. b. Online people can influence every aspect that people can perceive from them. i. Research shows that people can handle criticism better after they’ve looked at their social media profiles. We tend to use social comparison to know how we stack up against our peers. But using upward social comparison can make us feel very bad about ourselves. a. It is very easy to socially compare yourself with the people online. b. However the negative effects of using social comparison on social media are not the same for every individual. 2. Sharing emotions Rime’s Social sharing theory of emotions suggests that we are motivated to share our emotions, due to two goals: 1) The satisfaction of our socioemotional needs: obtaining support from others to help us validate our feelings, normalise our experiences, and savor positive states. 2) The satisfaction of our cognitive needs: receiving advice from others to help us make sense of our experiences. Social media makes sharing emotions very easy and it contributes to our received and perceived social support. The last two are very essential for someone’s well-being. - But social media also makes a great platform for cyberbullying and trolling. Which decreases someone’s well-being. Future research should focus on: - How and why does social media use influence use differently? - Focus on the different ways of using social media. 28 Lecture 7 Social media and substance use Savolainen, I., Oksanen, A., Kaakinen, M., Sirola, A., Miller, B. L., Paek, H. J., & Zych, I. (2020). The association between social media use and hazardous alcohol use among youths: A four-country study. Alcohol and alcoholism, 55(1), 86-95. 1. What is the aim of the article? The study aims to examine the relationship between daily social media use and hazardous alcohol consumption among young people across four countries: the USA, South Korea, Finland, and Spain. It also investigates whether uploading pictures to social media acts as a mediator in this relationship. The research seeks to understand how different types of social media platforms may contribute to hazardous drinking among youth, while accounting for factors like compulsive internet use, psychological distress, offline belonging, impulsivity, and risk-taking. 2. What are important terms and explain them? - Hazardous alcohol use: This refers to a pattern of alcohol consumption that carries the risk of harmful consequences for the drinker. The study uses the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT-C) to measure this. - User-oriented social media: These are platforms, such as Facebook and Instagram, where content is mainly shared among users who typically have visible identities and are based on relationships. - Content-oriented social media: These platforms, like YouTube and Twitter, establish networks around users' shared interests, and people are mostly anonymous6. - Compulsive Internet use: This refers to excessive internet use that can be associated with harmful behaviors, including alcohol use. It is measured using the Compulsive Internet Use Scale (CIUS). - Offline belonging: This refers to the strength of an individual's social connections in real life, encompassing family, friendship groups, and school or work communities. - Psychological distress: This is measured using the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12) and indicates common mental health problems such as depression, anxiety and social withdrawal. - Impulsivity: The tendency to act on a whim, measured using the Eysenck impulsivity scale. - Risk-taking: The tendency to engage in behaviors with potential negative consequences, measured using a single-item measure. 3. What are the results of the article? - Daily use of Facebook and Instagram was associated with higher hazardous alcohol use among youths in Finland, South Korea, and Spain. - Daily instant messaging was linked to higher hazardous alcohol use among South Korean and Finnish youths. 29  - Daily YouTube use was associated with higher hazardous alcohol use among youths in South Korea but with lower hazardous alcohol use among youths in the USA and Finland. - Daily Twitter use was related to lower hazardous drinking among youths in Finland but higher hazardous drinking among youths in Spain. - Uploading pictures to social media was found to be a mediator between the use of Facebook and Instagram and hazardous alcohol use in the USA and Spain. - Emerging adults (18-25 year olds) seemed to be more at risk for hazardous drinking when they use social media compared to 15-17 year olds. - The mean hazardous alcohol use score was highest in Finland, followed by South Korea, Spain, and the USA. 4. What are the implications of the article? - The findings suggest that certain social media platforms may attract or inspire young people who engage in hazardous drinking. - User-oriented social media (Facebook, Instagram, and instant messaging) are more consistently associated with higher hazardous alcohol use, possibly due to the behavior-inspiring imagery and social influence that these platforms facilitate. - The study underscores the role of social influence and social learning through images and shared experiences on social media. - The results emphasize the need for more regulatory measures from social media sites to limit the spread of pro-alcohol content. - The study provides opportunities for implementing intervention methods within social media, such as assessing user profiles for risky drinking patterns and delivering health promotion messages. - Content-oriented social media might be a safer type of social media, as it allows users to search and view specific topics and content. 5. Are there any limitations? - The study is cross-sectional, which means causal interpretations cannot be made. - The data is based on self-reported surveys, which are sensitive to social desirability bias. - The study lacks objective measures of social media use and exposure to alcohol- related content. - The associations found in the study are relatively weak. - The mediation analysis was only significant in the USA and Spain, indicating cultural differences may play a role. - The AUDIT-C has some limitations, particularly in detecting hazardous alcohol use among young people, due to the variability in alcohol use behavior during their younger years. The study helps in understanding the complex relationship between social media and hazardous alcohol use among youth across different countries and provides insights for targeted interventions. 30 Kurten, S., Vanherle, R., Beullens, K., Gebhardt, W. A., van den Putte, B., & Hendriks, H. (2022). Like to drink: Dynamics of liking alcohol posts and effects on alcohol use. Computers in Human Behavior, 129, 107145. 1. What is the aim of the article? - The main goal of the study is to investigate the dynamics of "likes" on alcohol- related posts on social media and how these likes, in turn, are related to the actual alcohol consumption of emerging adults. - The research aims to gain a deeper understanding of the social dynamics behind liking alcohol posts and the role this plays in the real-life drinking behavior of young adults. - The authors explore whether alcohol-related posts receive more likes than non-alcohol posts and whether there are differences between men and women in giving and receiving likes. - The study also seeks to determine if liking alcohol posts predicts alcohol consumption on the same day. 2. What are important terms and explain them? - Emerging adulthood: This is the stage of life between 18 and 25, characterized by an increase in risky behaviors such as alcohol consumption. - Heavy episodic drinking (HED): Defined as consuming 60 or more grams of pure alcohol on at least one occasion per month. - Social Networking Sites (SNS): Social media platforms where users share content and interact with each other. In this study, an app mimicking Facebook was used. - Likes: A form of online approval for a social media post, often seen as a sign of peer approval. - Reciprocal liking: The mutual exchange of likes, where users like each other's posts. - Descriptive norms: The perception of how often peers engage in drinking behavior. - Injunctive norms: The perception of peer approval regarding alcohol consumption. - Alcohol posts: Social media posts with images or text that directly refer to alcohol. This can include posts where alcohol is the focus, in the background, or mentioned in the header. - Non-alcohol posts: Social media posts that do not contain any reference to alcohol. - Dyadic ties: The connections between two individuals in a social network, in this case, the mutual liking of posts. 3. What are the results of the article? - Alcohol posts receive more likes than non-alcohol posts. On average, participants received more likes for alcohol posts (30 likes) than for non-alcohol posts (15 likes). - Likes are often exchanged reciprocally. The likelihood of receiving a like is higher when the liking is reciprocated. - Women tend to receive more likes on alcohol posts than men. The probability of a post from a woman receiving a like is about 38% higher than for a post from a man. 31  - The likelihood of receiving a like is higher if the poster and the liker are of the same gender. - Liking an alcohol post is associated with a higher likelihood of alcohol consumption on the same day. The odds of someone drinking alcohol are 80% higher if they liked an alcohol post that da. - Men are more likely to drink alcohol than women. For example, a 20-year-old man has a 38.9% chance of drinking on a Friday, compared to a 31.4% chance for a woman of the same age. - The effects of liking alcohol posts on alcohol consumption are significant only for the same day and not for the following day. 4. What are the implications of the article? - The results show that social media plays a role in the alcohol consumption of young adults through likes on alcohol-related posts. - It is concerning that online approval (in the form of likes) can reinforce drinking behavior in young adults. A simple click ("like") can influence drinking behavior on the same day. - The research suggests that future studies should focus on women and their mutual appreciation for alcohol posts. - It is advisable to explore other factors that might predict the liking of alcohol posts, such as personality traits. - Social media platforms could introduce warning messages about the risks of alcohol consumption when users are about to like an alcohol post. The effect of such messages, however, still needs to be tested. 5. Are there any limitations? - The study cannot establish a causal relationship between liking alcohol posts and alcohol consumption. - Only one researcher coded the posts, which could affect the reliability of the coding process. - The research could not fully control for the effect of exposure to alcohol posts, so it is unclear whether the effect of liking alcohol content is larger than that of exposure alone. - There is uncertainty about the accuracy of the participants' answers, particularly regarding socially desirable responses. - The study was conducted in the Netherlands, which may limit the generalizability to other cultures. - The study used an app that mimicked Facebook, which may not yield the same interactions as the real Facebook platform. - The study could not control for the use of other apps with alcohol-related content. - The app displayed posts chronologically, which deviates from the algorithmic timelines on the real Facebook platform. 32  - The study focused only on Facebook, while other platforms are also popular for sharing alcohol-related content. The study offers insights into the relationship between liking alcohol posts and alcohol consumption among emerging adults and emphasizes the need for further research and interventions in this area. 33 Lecture 8 Policy Grgurina, N., Tolboom, J. (2024). K-8 Digital Literacy Curriculum in the Netherlands. In: Pluhár, Z., Gaál, B. (eds) Informatics in Schools. Innovative Approaches to Computer Science Teaching and Learning. 1. What is the aim of the article? - The article aims to describe the development process and the resulting core objectives of the new K-8 Digital Literacy (DL) curriculum in the Netherlands. - It explores the steps taken by the Netherlands Institute for Curriculum Development (SLO) to create a compulsory digital literacy curriculum for primary and lower secondary education. - The article addresses the question: "Which aspects of the curriculum development process were beneficial for carrying out the necessary steps leading to the results?". - It also provides an overview of the context, requirements, and challenges faced during the curriculum development. 2. What are important terms and explain them? - Digital Literacy (DL): In the context of this article, DL refers to the knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary to actively participate in digital processes, understand digital technology, communicate effectively, be creative, change perspectives, and take responsibility for (digital) behavior. - SLO (Netherlands Institute for Curriculum Development): The organization tasked by the Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture, and Science to develop the DL curriculum. - Core Objectives: These are the learning standards that constitute the curriculum1. They are mandatory and define what students should know and be able to do by the end of primary and lower secondary education. - Characteristic: A document describing the vision of DL within the Dutch context. It also explains how DL contributes to the aims of education (qualification, socialization, and subjectification) and its coherence with other learning areas. - Intended Curriculum: The ideal curriculum represented by the characteristic and the formal curriculum represented by the core objectives. - ABC Principle: A guideline for formulating core objectives, where each should state the (A) audience, (B) behavior, and (C) content. - Domains: The core objectives are grouped into three domains: (A) Practical knowledge and skills, (B) Designing and making, and (C) Interaction between digital, technology, digital, media, people and the society. - Vertical and Horizontal Coherence: The curriculum's alignment with both previous and subsequent educational levels (vertical) and with other subjects/learning areas (horizontal). 34 3. What are the results of the article? The article presents the nine core objectives for digital literacy, organized into three domains. - Domain A: Practical Knowledge and Skills focuses on the technological aspects of DL. It includes objectives related to digital systems, digital media and information, security and privacy, data, and artificial intelligence. For example, students are expected to understand how digital systems function, navigate digital media for information, understand security risks, explore data use, and explore how AI systems work. - Domain B: Designing and Making concentrates on creation and design using digital technology, and includes objectives focused on creating with digital technology and programming. Students are expected to experiment with digital tools to express ideas, design digital products, and program computers using computational thinking. - Domain C: Interaction Between Digital Technology, Digital Media, the People and Society is reflective and addresses the impact of technology on people and society. It covers objectives related to the influence of digital technology on individuals and society. Students are expected to make well-considered choices when using digital technology and media, explore the influence of technology on well- being, and explore the reciprocal relationship between technology and society. - The curriculum development process was iterative, involving reviews of existing frameworks, consultations with experts, and feedback from internal and external stakeholders. - The team agreed on five guiding principles for the DL curriculum: specific knowledge and skills, opportunities for expression and design, a reflective component, a reciprocal relationship between people and digital technology, and integration with other learning areas. 4. What are the implications of the article? - The successful development of the DL curriculum marks a significant step towards compulsory digital literacy education in the Netherlands. - The curriculum aims to ensure that all students, regardless of their socio-economic background, develop essential digital literacy skills, promoting equality of opportunity. - The curriculum addresses the need for students to learn about current societal challenges related to digital technologies, including the human-machine relationship, ethics, AI, data privacy, and online behavior. - The curriculum emphasizes the importance of both technical skills and critical thinking about the social and cultural implications of digital technology. - The article also underscores the importance of curriculum development processes that include diverse stakeholders (teachers, specialists, experts) and multiple feedback loops. 35 5. Are there any limitations? - The article focuses on the intended curriculum, not the enacted curriculum. The actual implementation and teaching approaches are left to the schools and teachers. - The article notes that formulating core objectives that are both comprehensive and concise was a challenge, given the breadth of the field and the prescribed limitations. - The allocated teaching time for DL is limited, which may present challenges for teachers trying to cover all the core objectives. - The curriculum is still pending legal approval and is subject to a testing phase before full implementation, so its final form and impact are not yet fully determined. - The team experienced difficulties with some external stakeholders who did not fully understand the DL content or the roles involved in the curriculum development process. In summary, the article details the rigorous process behind the creation of the Dutch K-8 digital literacy curriculum, highlighting its goals, key concepts, and structure. It emphasizes the importance of a well-defined, comprehensive approach to digital literacy education, which integrates technical skills with a critical understanding of the societal and personal impacts of digital technologies. 36