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PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 Existing Theory COVERAGE: Formulate Hypothesis 1. Nature of...

PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 Existing Theory COVERAGE: Formulate Hypothesis 1. Nature of Inquiry and Research Collect Data 2. Identifying the Inquiry of Research 3. Writing Chapter 1 of the Research Paper Analyze Data 4. Writing Chapter 2 of the Research Paper Do/Don’t Reject Hypothesis Purpose of Research NATURE OF INQUIRY AND RESEARCH 1. Exploratory – exploratory research is defined Research as research used to investigate a problem which o “Research is a systematic inquiry to is not clearly defined. describe, explain, predict, and control the ❖ It is conducted to have a better observed phenomenon. It involves inductive understanding of the existing research and deductive methods.” – Earl Robert problem, but will not provide conclusive Babbie results. Inductive Reasoning vs Deductive Reasoning ❖ Used to answer questions like “what”, o Inductive Reasoning – is the act of making “why”, and “how”. generalized conclusions based of specific 2. Descriptive - Descriptive research is a research scenarios. Examples: method describing the characteristics of the a. Determining when you should leave for population or phenomenon studied. work based on traffic patterns, ❖ Focuses more on the “what” of the research b. Rolling out a new accounting process subject than the “why” of the research based on the way users interact with the subject. software. 3. Explanatory - Explanatory research is a method c. Deciding on incentive plans based on an developed to investigate a phenomenon that has employee survey. not been studied or explained properly. d. Changing a meeting time or format ❖ Explanatory research is responsible for based on participant energy levels. finding the “why” of the events by used to answer questions like “what”, establishing Specific Observation cause-effect relationships. Research Methods Pattern Recognition 1. Qualitative Method - Qualitative research is a General Conclusion method that collects data using conversational methods, usually open-ended questions. The responses collected are essentially non- o Deductive Reasoning – is the act of numerical. This method helps a researcher backing up a generalized statement with understand what participants think and why they specific scenarios. Examples: think in a particular way. a. Developing a marketing plan that will 2. Quantitative Method - Quantitative methods be effective for a specific audience. deal with numbers and measurable forms. It uses b. Designing the floor plan and layout of a a systematic way of investigating events or data. shop to maximize sales. It answers questions to justify relationships with c. Determining the most efficient ways to measurable variables to either explain, predict, communicate with clients. or control a phenomenon. d. Planning out a budget to get the highest output from your investments. 1|E Y A H  PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 Qualitative Quantitative 2. Ordinal Level – you can categorize and rank Focus Exploring ideas or Testing your data in order, but you cannot say anything formulating hypotheses or about the intervals between the rankings. hypotheses/theories theories ❖ Examples: Top 5 Olympic medalists, Analysis Summarizing, Math and Language ability (e.g., beginner, categorizing, statistical intermediate, fluent), Likert-type questions interpreting analysis (e.g., very dissatisfied to very satisfied). Expressed in Words Numbers, 3. Interval Level - you can categorize, rank, and graphs, tables, infer equal intervals between neighboring data fewer words points but there is no true zero point. Sample Few respondents Many respondents ❖ Examples: Test scores (e.g., IQ or exams), Questions Open-ended Close-ended or personality inventories, temperature in multiple choice Fahrenheit or Celsius. 4. Ratio Level – you can categorize, rank, and Characterized Understanding, Testing, infer equal intervals between neighboring data by context, complexity, measurement, points, and there is a true zero point. subjectivity objectivity, ❖ Examples: Height, Age, Weight, replicability Temperature in Kelvin. Variables in Quantitative Research a. Variable - Are anything that varies. They are IDENTIFYING THE INQUIRY AND STATING anything that takes on different values, typically THE PROBLEM numerical values. Everything around you can be a variable in research. Types of Quantitative Research o Types of Variables: There are two broad classifications in quantitative 1. Independent Variable – commonly research: known as the X variable. a. Experimental – adheres to the procedures of - Presume cause. scientific method. It involves manipulation of - Can be manipulated by the variables and employment of a treatment or researcher. intervention. ❖ Example: The Effects of Herbal Treatment in - Stable and unaffected by the other Reducing Blood Sugar among those variable. diagnosed with Diabetes in investigated. 2. Dependent Variable – commonly known as the Y variable. o True Experimental – to test the effectiveness of a mobile health app designed to increase - Presume effect. physical activity among adults. - This variable assumes the change ❖ Example: Impact of Mobile Health Apps on brought about by the other variable Physical Activity Levels. (IV). o Quasi-experimental – to determine if using a - Variable that is being measured by gamified learning increases student the researcher. engagement compared to traditional learning Level of Measurements – also called as scales of management system (LMS). measurement, tell you how precisely variables are ❖ Example: Effect of Gamified Learning recorded. In scientific research, a variable is Platforms on Student Engagement. anything that can take on different values across b. Non-Experimental – does not use treatment or your data set (e.g., height or test scores). intervention. It may be classified according to 1. Nominal Level – you can categorize your data the research purpose: Descriptive, predictive, by labelling them in mutually exclusive groups, or explanatory. but there is no order between the categories. ❖ Examples: City of Birth, Gender, Ethnicity, o Descriptive – non-experimental quantitative Car Brands, Marital Status. research is considered descriptive if the 2|E Y A H  PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 researchers answer “yes” to the following Step 3: Formulate hypothesis. questions: Step 4: Prepare the research design. 1. Is the researcher primarily describing the phenomenon? Step 5: Collect data. 2. Were the researchers documenting the characteristics of the phenomenon? Step 6: Analyze and interpret data. o Predictive – If the researchers aim is to Step 7: Write the research report. predict or forecast some event or phenomenon in the future, then the research Step 8: Report findings of the research. is considered predictive. Research is WRITING CHAPTER 1 OF THE RESEARCH predictive if researchers answer “yes” to the PAPER following questions: 1. Were the researchers trying to establish In writing the first chapter of the research paper, the the causal relationship between the IV researcher must bear in mind the following and DV? concerns: 2. Were the researchers trying to predict or forecast the effect of an IV and DV? 1.0 Introduction o Explanatory – research is explanatory if the 1.1 Statement of the Problem researchers answer “yes” to the following 1.2 Scope and Limitation questions: 1.3 Significant of the Study 1. Were the researchers trying to develop 1.4 Research Objectives or test a theory about a phenomenon to Introduction - Constructing a strong introduction in explain how and why it operates? a quantitative research paper is crucial as it sets the 2. Were the researchers trying to explain stage for the entire study. The introduction should how the phenomenon operates in clearly present the research problem, provide identifying the causal factors that context, and lead into the research questions or produce the change in it? hypotheses. 1. Start with a Broad Context Non-experimental according to time dimension: o Purpose: Begin by introducing the broad 1. Cross-sectional Research – the data are area of research to provide a general collected from research participants at a single background. point in time or during a single, relatively brief o Content: Present the topic and its period of time. significance. Discuss current trends, issues, 2. Retrospective Research – the researcher looks or debates within the field. Highlight the backward in time. This is typically done by relevance of the study to the broader starting with independent variable and moving discipline. backward in time to locate information on 2. Narrow Down to the Specific Problem independent variables that explain current o Purpose: Focus on the specific problem or differences on the dependent variable. gap in the existing literature that your 3. Longitudinal Research – the data are collected research aims to address. at more than one data collection period so that o Content: Identify a specific issue, gap, or the researcher can make comparisons across challenge within the broader topic. Highlight time. This means collecting data starting with the importance of addressing this gap. Use the present and then collecting more data at a the literature to support the existence of this later time for comparison. gap or problem. 3. State the Research Problem Steps in the Quantitative Research Process: o Purpose: Clearly articulate the research Step 1: Define the research problem. problem that your study addresses. o Content: Present the central problem or Step 2: Do the review of related literature. question your study will investigate. Explain 3|E Y A H  PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 why this problem is significant and worth 4. Causal Research Questions investigating. o Purpose: To determine cause-and- 4. Review Relevant Literature (Briefly) effect relationships between o Purpose: Provide a brief overview of key variables. studies that have addressed the research o Key Feature: These questions are problem. designed to test hypotheses about o Content: Summarize the main findings of causal links, usually through relevant studies. Point out inconsistencies, experiments or longitudinal studies. gaps, or areas where further research is 1.2 Scope and Delimitation needed. Position your study within the o Constructing the scope and delimitation of a context of the existing literature. study is an essential part of any research 5. State the Purpose of Your Study project, as it defines the boundaries of your o Purpose: Clearly state the main aim or research and clarifies what your study will purpose of your research. and will not cover. o Content: Articulate the objectives of your 1. Define the Scope of the Study study. Explain how your research will o The scope refers to the extent of the study— address the identified problem or gap. what it will cover. This includes the main 1.1 Statement of the Problem focus, the population or sample, the time o In quantitative research, research questions frame, and the variables of interest. inquire about the relationships among o Identify the Focus: Clearly state the main variables being investigated and are usually focus of your study. framed at the start of the study. These are o Determine the Population or Sample: precise and typically linked to the subject Specify the group or population that your population, dependent and independent study will investigate. variables, and research design. o Establish the Time Frame: Define the time o Types of Research Questions: period that your study will cover. 1. Descriptive Research Questions o Specify the Variables: Outline the key o Purpose: To describe characteristics variables that will be measured or or functions of a specific population examined. or phenomenon. o Outline the Methodology: Briefly mention o Key Feature: These questions seek the methods or tools that will be used to quantify and describe variables to conduct the study. without making inferences or 2. Define the Delimitations of the Study. Comparisons. o Delimitations are the boundaries you set for 2. Comparative Research Questions your study, which include aspects that you o Purpose: To compare differences are not covering and the reasons for those between two or more groups or decisions. This section clarifies what the conditions. study will not address and helps prevent the o Key Feature: These questions research from being too broad or unfocused. involve comparing groups based on o Steps to define the delimitations: one or more variables to identify a. Explain what is excluded: Clearly state any significant differences. what aspects are not included in your 3. Relational Research Questions study and why. o Purpose: To examine the b. Justify the Choices: Provide reasons for relationship or association between the delimitations, linking them to the two or more variables. objectives and scope of the study. o Key Feature: These questions c. Mention the Geographic Boundaries: If investigate correlations or applicable, specify the geographical associations, often without implying limitations of your study. Causation. 3. Review and Refine 4|E Y A H  PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 o Ensure Clarity: Make sure your scope and questions or hypotheses. Align with the delimitations are clearly articulated and easy study’s scope and significance. to understand. 5. Write the Research Objectives o Align with Objectives: Confirm that the o Purpose: Clearly articulate the scope and delimitations are consistent with objectives in a structured format. your research objectives and questions. o Content: Use bullet points or numbered o Be Concise: Avoid unnecessary detail; be lists for clarity. Begin each objective clear and to the point. with an action verb (e.g., "Measure, " 1.3 Significance of the Study "Assess, " "Evaluate "). o The "Significance of the Study " section 6. Review and Refine explains why your research is important and o Clarity: Ensure the objectives are clear, how it will contribute to the existing body of specific, and easy to understand. knowledge. It should clearly communicate the o Alignment: Confirm that the objectives value of your research to various stakeholders, align with the research problem, including the academic community, questions, and hypotheses. practitioners, policymakers, and society at large. o Feasibility: Double-check that the 1.4 Research Objective objectives are achievable given your o Constructing research objectives in a resources and constraints. quantitative approach involves clearly defining WRITING CHAPTER 2 OF THE RESEARCH what you aim to achieve with your study. PAPER Research objectives should be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time- What is Literature Review? bound (SMART). ❖ The process of obtaining relevant and 1. Start with the Research Problem important information or material related to o Purpose: Your research objectives the research topic is called “review of should directly address the research related literature”. problem or questions identified in your ❖ A literature review helps you explain how study. the research problem to be investigated fits o Content: Ensure that the objectives align to the larger picture. A literature review lets with the overall goal of the research. you identify what has already been done so 2. Define Specific Objectives as not to replicate other researchers work. o Purpose: Clearly outline what you intend to accomplish with your study. STEPS IN DOING A LITERATURE REVIEW o Content: Use precise language to state 1. Identify key terms to use in your research for what you want to measure or analyze. literature. Avoid vague or broad statements. 2. Locate literature about a topic by consulting 3. Ensure Measurability several types of materials and databases. o Purpose: Objectives should be 3. Evaluate and select the literature critically for your review. quantifiable so that you can assess 4. Organize the literature you have selected. whether they have been achieved. 5. Write the literature review. o Content: Define the metrics or indicators Literature Review usually has 3 main parts: you will use to measure success. Include a. Introduction – sets the stage for the review. This specific numerical targets or is where you give an overview, define important benchmarks where possible. key words, and inform readers of the limitations 4. Ensure Relevance of the review. o Purpose: Objectives should be directly b. Body – it contains the discussions on the related to the research problem and similarities and differences of findings from contribute to the study’s overall aim. several articles and how they are related to the o Content: Ensure that achieving the present study. objectives will help address the research 5|E Y A H  PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 c. Conclusion – summarizes the trends and themes ❖ Alphabetical order by the first author’s that you have observed as you describe the last name. findings from the different articles. It is in the 2. Modern Language Association (MLA) style conclusion that you identify the gaps in the 3. Chicago Manual of Style literature. Citing References What is Framework? o Reference citation is the process of o It is defined as a “set of ideas that provide documenting the various sources of support to something”. materials and information relevant to your o 2 Types of Research Framework: study. a. Theoretical Framework The three most common citation styles in writing a b. Conceptual Framework - a visual or literature are: written representation of the 1. American Psychological Association (APA) relationships between key variables or style (7th Edition) – citations are used in two concepts within your study. It serves as main forms: in-text citations and the references the foundation that connects your list. research objectives, hypotheses, and A. In-text Citation (within the body of your methodology, helping to clarify how the paper) – APA uses the author-date method different components of your research for in-text citations. are interrelated. ❖ Basic Format: (Author’s Last Name, o It is used to: Year) – Ex. (Smith, 2020) 1. Define the concepts being ❖ For Direct Quotes: Include the page studied. number – Ex. (Smith, 2020, p.15) 2. Provide a clear structure for the ❖ Multiple Authors: research process. ▪ Two Authors: (Author1 & 3. Show how the variables or ideas Author2, Year) – Ex. (Smith & relate to one another. Johnson, 2020). 4. Guide the collection and ▪ Three or More Authors: analysis of data. (Author1 et al., Year) – Ex. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK (Smith et al., 2020) ▪ No Author: User the title in INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT Italics for books or reports – Ex. The variables that The method by The problem, (A Guide to Research, 2020) or cause the which the phenomenon, or (“Global Warming”, 2020). problem, variables are transformation; B. Reference List (at the end of your research phenomenon, or collected and the outcome of paper) transformation. synthesized. the variables. a. Books Definition of Terms – this refers to the section Format: Author, A. A. (Year). Title of the where key terms and concepts used in the study are book (Edition if applicable). Publisher clearly defined to ensure consistency and clarity b. Journal Article throughout the research. Format: Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. a. Conceptual Definition – explains the meaning (Year). Title of the article. Title of the of a term or concept based on how it is journal, Volume (Issue), page range. understood in theory or the broader literature. c. Websites o Purpose – to provide a common Format: Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day). understanding of the term as it is used in a Title of the webpage. Website Name. URL specific discipline or context. C. General APA Formatting Guidelines o Example – In a study on motivation, the ❖ Double-spacing throughout. conceptual definition of motivation might ❖ Hanging indent for all references. be: “Motivation refers to the internal 6|E Y A H  PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 processes that initiate, guide, and sustain 2. Review Existing Literature: Use goal-oriented behavior”. previous research to inform your b. Operational Definition – it explains how a hypothesis. concept or variable will be measured or 3. State the Relationship: Clearly express manipulated in a specific study. the expected relationship between the o Purpose – To specify how the researcher will variables. measure or observe the concept in the 4. Make it Testable: Ensure your context of the study. hypothesis can be tested with o Example – In the same study on motivation, quantitative methods such as surveys, the operational definition might be: experiments, or statistical analysis. “Motivation will be measured using a 10- item questionnaire, where respondents rate their level of motivation on a scale of 1 to 5”. Research Hypothesis – a hypothesis in quantitative research is a specific, testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables. ❖ Types of Hypotheses: 1. Null Hypothesis (H0) – states that there is no relationship between the variables being studied. It assumes that any observed difference is due to chance or random variation. - Purpose: To be tested and either rejected or accepted in the analysis. The goal is often to reject the null hypothesis, which would suggest a significant relationship exists between variables. - Example: “There is no significant relationship between social media usage and academic performance among high school students.” 2. Alternative Hypothesis (H1) – The alternative hypothesis states that there is a relationship between the variables. It is the hypothesis that the researcher aims to support through evidence. - Purpose: It proposes the expected relationship or difference between variables and is tested against the null hypothesis. - Example: “Increased social media usage is associated with lower academic performance among high school students.” ❖ Formulating Hypotheses 1. Identify the Variables: Determine the independent and dependent variables. 7|E Y A H