PR-2-Finals PDF

I. Inquiry and Research discovery and development of an organized body of A quest for truth, information or knowledge through knowledge questioning Through inquiry, a new body of knowledge is being Aims of research:...

I. Inquiry and Research discovery and development of an organized body of A quest for truth, information or knowledge through knowledge questioning Through inquiry, a new body of knowledge is being Aims of research: generated and transmitted from person-person To produce new knowledge Uses Higher-Order Thinking Strategies (HOTS) Utilize the new knowledge Validate existing knowledge Importance of Inquiry Improve the researcher Helps develop information literacy Human convenience Develops critical thinking skills by using HOTS Research precedes progress Results in better long-term retention of information Research makes the world a better place Opens opportunities for creativity synergy and collegial problem solving Qualitative research Can help us learn how to become lifelong learners A method of inquiry used in various academic discipline especially in social science How can inquiry be used? Aims to gather a deeper understanding of human In determining your own direction of learning behavior and personal traits In evaluating a wide range of resources Subjectivity is true Needed in a workplace and community (working in Data collection maybe done through: small groups, communicating clearly, applying - Interview knowledge to solve real problems) - Narrating Participate in opportunities for reflection - Storytelling Engage in an interesting study - Content analysis In becoming lifelong learners - Group discussions Research Quantitative Research - A systematic process of A type of inquiry where relations are established ✓ Conducting scientific method through collection of numerical data ✓ For the discovery and development of an organized Test and experiments quantifiable values body of knowledge Objectivity is key in making generalizations C – Clear Data analysis may be done through: O – Objective - Statistics S – Systematic - Figures T – Timely - Mathematical models A – Accurate R – Relevant Quali vs Quanti Focus Inquiry Qualitative – quality or meaning of experience First level of quests of knowledge Quantitative – quantity, frequency , magnitude Call center to client Philosophical roots Guidance counselor to student Qualitative – constructivism Doctor to patient Quantitative – positivism Goal of investigation Research Qualitative – understand, describe, discover More in-dept and more extensive quest for knowledge Quantitative – predict, control, confirm, test Information technology and social media Data collection Person's blood type and severity of COVID 19 Qualitative – researcher as instrument Government's crisis response Quantitative – external instruments: survey, test Type of questions II. Quantitative Reasearch Qualitative - probing Quantitative - simple Re – do it again Sample size Search – to seek, to explore, investigate Qualitative – low A repetitious pursuit of knowledge Quantitative - large Questioner’s skill A systematic and intensive process of carrying on a Qualitative – high scientific method of analysis, carried out for the KJ & M.D. - SERVANTL.  Quantitative – low(ish) Data expression III. Experimental and Non-Experimental Qualitative – verbal language Quantitative – numerical figures Experimental research Type of analysis Considered as the most effective methos of testing Qualitative – thematical codal, subjective cause-effect relationship Quantitative – statistical object Two groups are involved in experimental research: Areas probed - Experimental Group Qualitative – attitudes, feelings, motivations, behavior - Control Group Quantitative – choices, frequency, demographics Purpose Non-Experimental Research Qualitative – makes social intentions understandable A study when a researcher cannot control, manipulate Quantitative – objective evaluations. Examines cause- or alter the predictor variable effect relationship Cannot demonstrate a true cause-effect relationship Obtaining knowledge Has a high level of external validity Qualitative - multiple methods Relies on: Quantitative – impersonal, scientific or systematic - Correlational Style of expression - Survey Studies Qualitative – personal, lacks formality - Case Studies Quantitative – scientific method Sampling technique Experimental vs Non-Experimental Qualitative – purpose sampling Experimental Quantitative – random sampling - True-experimental design - Quasi-experimental design Quantitative research: it’s importance - Pre-experimental design Produces accurate measurement Non-Experimental Obtains an objective understanding of variables under - Action studies study - Compared studies Takes away researcher’s bias opinion - Correlational studies Pros - Evaluation studies - Excellent way of finalizing results - Need assessment studies - Proves or disproves a hypothesis - Meta-Analysis studies - Has a standard research structure - Survey studies - Results are real and unbiased Cons True-Experimental Researcher - Difficult and expensive Researcher manipulates the experimental variables - Requires a lot of time and effort There must be one experimental group and one - Less human perceptions comparison or control group - Presets/fixed alternative answers may not reflect Subjects are randomly assigned either to the the true answers of participants comparison or experimental group Three criteria must be met: Writing Quantitative Research Questions: ✓ Control group and experimental group Choose your starting phrase ✓ Researcher manipulated variable Identify your variables ✓ Randomization of subjects Identify the variables you intend to measure Examples of true-experimental design: Identify the variable you want to control - Pre-Test – Post-Test Controlled Group Design Identify the variables you intend to manipulate - Post-Test Controlled Group Design Structure your questions - Solomon Four-Group Design Pre-Test – Post-Test Controlled Group Sample Research Questions: ✓ Subjects are randomly assigned to group How often do male and female high school students ✓ A pretest is given to both groups upload photos in social media? ✓ The experimental group receives the treatment What is the relationship between study time and while the controlled group does not examinations score od gr12 students? ✓ A posttest is given to both group What percentage of Filipino women exceeds their daily colorific allowance? KJ & M.D. - SERVANTL.  Time Series Design - The searcher periodically observes or measures the subjects - Researchers make series of observations of the dependent variable before and after the treatment is introduced. Non-Experimental Research Survey Studies Post-Test Controlled Group Design - Survey generally ask respondents to report on ✓ Subjects are randomly assigned to groups their attitudes, perceptions, opinions, behaviors ✓ The experimental group receives the treatment ✓ To obtain people’s opinions about an issue while the control group ✓ To identify present conditions needs and problems ✓ A post test i given to both groups ✓ To seek answers to social problems ✓ To give guidelines on curriculum development and other learning procedures Planning of Survey Research Solomon Four-Group Design ✓ Subjects are randomly assigned to groups ✓ Two groups (experimental group 1 and control group 1) are pre tested ✓ The two experimental groups receive treatment while the two controlled groups receives no treatment ✓ A posttest is given to four groups Strength of Survey Research Versatility Efficiency Generality Confidentiality Ethical Principles Respect and care for respondents Benefits to society Honesty and truthfulness Confidentiality IV. VARIABLES Quasi-Experimental Research Any factor or property that a researcher measures, controls, and manipulates. The logical set of attributes, characteristics, numbers, or quantities that can be measured or counted. A data item CHARACTERISTICS OF VARIABLES Capable of assuming several values that represent a certain category. Values that may arise from counting/measurements. Non-equivalent Controlled Group Design Observable characteristics of person/object being This is similar to the pretest-posttest controlled group studied. design, except that there is no random assignment of subjects to the experimental and control group QUALITATIVE VARIABLES KJ & M.D. - SERVANTL.  Categorical Variables. ○ Gender, race, age, or grade level. “Unmeasurable variables.” Two Types: OTHER TYPES 1. Nominal – Data values that represent categories 1. EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES with no intrinsic values. ○ Error-producing variables (other than IVs) that may 2. Ordinal – Data values that represent categories impact the DV response. with some intrinsic order. ○ An uncontrolled variable that greatly influences the results. ○ Organismic – cannot be changed through QUANTITATIVE VARIABLES manipulation. Characteristics, attributes, or traits that can be ○ Environmental – these are economic, anthropological, measured. sociological, and physical factors. “Measurable variables” Two Types: 2. ABSTRACT or CONTINUOUS VARIABLES 1. Discrete or Scale – counts of individual items or ○ These are quantitative measures and statistically- values. tested, precision-based measurements. 2. Continuous – measurement of continuous or non- finite values. 3. DICHOTOMOUS VARIABLES ○ These are factors with only two values, used in comparative studies. BASIC TYPES OF VARIABLES INDEPENDENT 4. CONSTANT VARIABLES - Also known as Explanatory variable. ○ They do not undergo any change during the - Predictor variable experiment. - Usually manipulated in an experiment..DEPENDENT 5. COVARIATE VARIABLES - Also known as Response variable ○ Create interactions with the dependent and - Criterion variable independent variables. - Usually affected by the manipulation of the IV. 6. LATENT VARIABLES ○ Cannot directly observed. 7. MANIFEST VARIABLES ○ Can be observed directly. 8. EXOGENOUS VARIABLES ○ Found outside an identified model. 9. ENDOGENOUS VARIABLES ○ Found inside, part of a model. GUIDELINES FOR IV AND DV The dependent variable is always the property you are trying to explain; it is always the object of the research. The independent variable usually occurs earlier in time than the dependent variable. The independent variable is often seen as influencing, directly or indirectly the dependent variable. TWO TYPES OF INDEPENDENT ACTIVE ○ A variable that is actually manipulated by the researchers. ○ Methods of training, form of reinforcement, type of nutritional supplement. ATTRIBUTE ○ Pre-existing attributes that cannot be manipulated. KJ & M.D. - SERVANTL.  V. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH PROBLEM & 4. it should contain important key words HYPOTHESES STEPS IN WRITING THE RESEARCH TITLE 1. The title must be broad enough to include all aspects WHAT DO WE MEAN BY THE WORD, of the study but should be as brief and concise as “PROBLEM?” possible. A situation in life, where you find difficulty in knowing 2. The use of terms such as “Analysis of,” “A Study of,” or finding answers or solutions to questions which are “An Investigation of,” and the like should be avoided. causing you worries or perplexities. All these are understood to have been done in A problem needs answers… research. Therefore, we resort to thinking of what to solve, whom 3. If the title contains more than one line, it should be to ask, where to go and how to do all the things we want written in an inverted pyramid. to happen... 4. When typed or encoded in the title page, all words in the title should be in capital letters. RESEARCH PROBLEM 5. If possible, the title should not be longer than 15 It is something that nurtures in our mind, a difficulty or words. uncertainty enough to push us to do an empirical 6. Avoid a long,detailed title that gives too mucH investigation. information. Being researchable, the research problem becomes a 7. To shorten your title, you may delete the terms, Quantitative Research Problem. ‘assessments’ and ‘evaluation’ these are already emphasized in the text. CHOOSING A RESEARCH TOPIC SIZE - The topic is carefully stated in the sense that it limits the study. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM SCOPE - The scope should be within one’s set This is your key to the research. It presents the major population and sample. problem, which is further discussed into subproblems TIME - The calculated time must be achieved. that are researchable units addressed one at a time. RESOURCES - Financial, material, and administrative INTERROGATIVE - Ex: What percentage of Manila resources are required. private universities consider the use of grammar SKILL - Enough training or help must be given. textbooks as the most effective way to help college ACCESS - The needs of the study can be easily students attain communicative competence? obtained. DECLARATIVE - Ex: The main objective of this PRIOR KNOWLEDGE - Researchers must have study is to find out the percentage of Manila private background knowledge of the topic. universities considering the use of grammar textbooks MOTIVATION - The interest during the duration of as the most effective way to help college students attain the research is a need. communicative competence. Steps in choosing a research topic: RESEARCH QUESTIONS 1. Consider previous studies. INTERROGATIVE 2. Your research should be aligned with your interests. - What is an English Grammar Textbook? 3. Current events and timely issues are good topics for - What is communicative competence? research. - To what extent do Manila private universities find 4. Your usual observation can also be a source. grammar textbooks in helping college students 5. Personal Experience of a phenomenon can also be attain communicative competence? included DECLARATIVE - To define a grammar textbook. WRITING THE RESEARCH TITLE - To explain the meaning of communicative THE RESEARCH TITLE competence. - The title must contain the following elements: - To determine the extent of Manila private ○ Subject Matter or research problem universities considering grammar textbooks as the ○ Setting or locale of the study means by which they can help college students ○ Respondents or participants involved attain communicative competence. ○ Time or period ○ Expected output Making a good title for a paper involves ensuring that the title of the research accomplishes four goals: 1. it predicts the content of the paper 2. it should be interesting 3. it should reflect the tone of the writing KJ & M.D. - SERVANTL.  GUIDELINES 1. Write the general problem, it should be reflective of the GUIDELINES title. 1. Express your hypotheses in a declarative sentence. 2. Write the specific questions to be answered. Consider 2. Support your hypotheses with ideas based on theories, the following in writing the research questions: known facts, previous studies, or your own experience a. Start with the general objective and end with the and wisdom. end-view of your research. 3. Establish a logical relationship between the hypotheses b. Arrange the questions chronologically or in order and the research problem. of importance. 4. Have your hypotheses predict the nature of relationship c. A research question is a question that can be between or among variables. answered in an objective way, at least partially and 5. Ascertain the possibility of having some means of at least for now. testing, analyzing and investigating your hypotheses. d. Make sure that the research question can be 6. Avoid wordiness by using clear, exact or specific answered using information that already exists or language in stating the hypotheses. that can be collected. e. It should be a question that has not already been answered, has not been answered completely, or has not been answered in your specific context. VI. SOP, SCOPE AND DELIMITATIONS, AND RRL HYPOTHESES WRITING THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY A tentative explanation or an answer to a question about This includes possible contributions of the research to variables, their relationships and other facts involved in the field of knowledge. the research. List all the beneficiaries of the research. It needs to be tested through analytical investigation to Discuss in two to three sentences the specific benefit prove how true or false it is. they will get from the thesis.. They provide opportunities to prove the relationship between variables. WRITING THE SCOPE AND DELIMITATIONS CATEGORIES OF HYPOTHESES: SCOPE – what the study would include (why, what, ○ Ho (Null Hypothesis) who, where, and how) - States the absence of relationship between DELIMITATIONS / LIMITATIONS – what are not the IV and the DV. - To disprove the fact that IV has an effect on covered in the study or cannot be controlled for the DV. acceptable reasons. ○ Ha (Alternative Hypothesis) “Delimitations” is different from “Limitations” - States the relationship between the IV and ○ LIMITATIONS are what the researcher cannot do DV. (elements outside of their control). - “The first affects the second one.” ○ DELIMITATIONS are what the researcher will not do (elements outside of the boundaries they have TYPES OF HYPOTHESES THEORY-DRIVEN HYPOTHESIS – Based on the set). existing theory to explain the relationship of variables. DATA-DRIVEN HYPOTHESIS. Based on findings of WRITING THE LITERATURE REVIEW previous research studies. An integrated synthesis drawing upon a select list of DIRECTIONAL (ONE-TAILED) HYPOTHESIS. academic sources with a strong relation to the topic in States the relationship of two variables. question. NON-DIRECTIONAL (TWO-TAILED) It is a paper that includes a description and a critical HYPOTHESIS. States the relationship of the variables but not on the direction of the relationship. evaluation of past research. (Santa Clara University, n.d.) DESCRIPTIVE HYPOTHESIS. Specifies the relationship between two variables due to influence of PURPOSES OF RRL something. 1. To find out the connection of your research to the CAUSAL HYPOTHESIS. Cause-Effect relationship. current conditions or situations of the world. 2. To know more about theories or concepts underlying your research and to learn from them with respect to your own research study. KJ & M.D. - SERVANTL.  3. To discover the relation of your research with previous - A kind of review of related literature in which we re- research studies. examine and combine the results of two or more 4. To obtain information on the accuracy or relevance of statistical studies for coming out with a grand total to your research questions. indicate stronger effects of the research outcome. 5. To familiarize yourself with technical terms related to - We resort to Meta-Analysis only if the statistics that we your research. intend to combine come from studies having similarities: ○ Research Questions LITERATURE REVIEW ○ Research Designs In a literature search, consider the following types of ○ Treatment sources: ○ Measuring Technique ○ Printed Resources ○ Measurable Outcome Books – printed materials Journals – where research articles are written - These studies with similarities are called homogeneous Newspapers – where important news is studies. published daily - On the other hand, with a number of differences from ○ Nonprint resources such as web sources, e-books, other studies, they are called heterogeneous studies and e-journals, and online newspapers. they are exempted from this type of Systematic Review In writing the review, provide an overview of the subject, called Meta- Analysis. issue, or theory under consideration along with the objectives of the literature review. Include also an explanation of how the work is similar to CAUTION: PLAGIARISM and how it varies from others. Plagiarism should also be avoided when writing the At the end of RRL, the synthesis must be written. This part RRL. To avoid plagiarism of language, you should do shows which pieces are best considered in their argument, the following: note-taking, quoting, and paraphrasing. are most convincing, and make the greatest contribution to Meanwhile, include proper citations to avoid plagiarism the development of the area in research of ideas. Different ways of citations: 1. Author-oriented. Starts with the name of the author, RRL IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH followed by the year of publication, and argument SYSTEMATIC REVIEW ‘a question-driven of points. methodology’ 2. Text-oriented. Starts with the actual text followed - Begin the research work by asking questions which by the reference. states the main problem of the research and a set of 3. Other ways. Starts with phrases like according to, as sub-questions that deal with specific aspects of the stated by, and others. They are also done when citing research. sources from images, movies, and like. STEPS IN SYSTEMATIC REVIEW APA REFERENCING STYLE ‘In-Text Citation and 1. Clarify your research questions. Bibliography’ 2. Plan your research based on your understanding of the All reading materials related to your research belonging research questions. to other people should appear in the appropriate 3. Search for literature. sections of your research paper. 4. Listing criteria for considering the values of written Referring to authors within the main body of the paper works. is called citation or in-text citation. 5. Evaluating the quality of previous research studies. On the other hand, if it is at the end of the paper, it is 6. Summarizing the various forms of knowledge called Bibliography or References. collected. IN-TEXT CITATION META-ANALYSIS An In-Text Citation can be used in paraphrased words or direct quotation from the author: KJ & M.D. - SERVANTL.  travelling to a particular location, the map guides your path. Theories should explain why things happen, rather than describe or predict. - The theoretical framework guides the researcher so that s/he would not deviate from the confines of the accepted theories to make his/her final contribution scholarly and academic. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK Is a STRUCTURE which the researcher believes can best explain the natural progress of the phenomenon to be studied (Camp, 2001) Arranged in logical structure to provide a picture or visual display of how ideas in a study relate to one another (Grant & Oslano, 2014). THE IPO MMODEL IPO – Input-process – output - used when the researcher try to isolate the factor that causes the problem. VII. THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK THE IVDV OR PC MODEL Conceptual framework vs. Theoretical framework IV-DV – independent variable – dependent variable Conceptual – explains abstract concepts and ideas through PC – Predictor – Criterion graphics or diagrams. This model is used when researchers want to highlight - It refers to SPECIFIC or NARROWER ideas a researcher relationships of the variables. utilizes in his/her study. - The design is NOT ACCEPTED, but it is a PROPOSAL of THE P MODEL the researcher to answer the research’s problems. This is the ‘Propose a Program’ Model, this one does Theoretical – explains theories and principles that can support not only shows the relationships of the variables but your study. also offers something at the end. - It provides a GENERAL or BROADER set of ideas within which a study belongs THE PO MODEL - It is well-developed, designed, and ACCEPTED. PO – Proposed Original THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK The researchers can design their conceptual A theoretical framework is a blueprint that is often framework on their own way. Still, it has to be “borrowed” by the researcher to build his/her own scientific. house or research inquiry - (Grant & Oslando, 2014; Adom, et al., 2018). DESIGNING YOUR CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK The theoretical framework serves as the foundation upon which a research is constructed. - Sinclair (2007), Fulton & Krainovich-Miller (2010) compared the role of theoretical framework to that of a map or travel plan. Thus, when KJ & M.D. - SERVANTL.  1. Take note of these in making your illustration or However, if the writer is referring to something that is known by its acronym, then the acronym can be used first followed by the full name in parentheses, Operational definition It is making the concept or the thing meaningful by specifying the way your research should measure diagram such concept. 2. Make sure that you familiarize yourself with the You need to provide an evidence or sometimes variables in your study. measurement to give a definition to a word. 3. Do not forget to indicate below the diagram the words, Figure #. Paradigm of the Study. WRITTING THE DEFINITION OF TERMS 4. After designing your conceptual framework, explain it Define only IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES! in words briefly to help your reader further It is expected to every researcher to present the understand the diagram you designed. conceptual and operational definition of TERMS used in the study. Conceptual definition tells you what the concept VII. The Language of Research means, while an operational definition tells you how When you wright a research... the term will be used and measured it in the study. Always use a third-person point-of-view Terminology : Inclusive Education Wright as clearly, as simply, and as briefly as possible. Remember: IX. DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE Be careful on your choice of words. Experimental vs Non Experimental Be consistent on your terms. Experimental – to test or examine a thing under a Observe the element of continuity. controlled and uncontrolled and uncontrolled group to determine its validity Transition Words and Phrases Non Experimental – the focus is around the variables Be conscious in how you connect sentences within paragraph the way they naturally exist on earth. and how you break them into sections. Additive Transitions Data Collection Techniques Adversative Transitions Survey Questionnaire Casual Transitions Pretest/posttest Sequential Transitions Treatment or intervention In writing numbers... Survey Questionnaire You may write the number in words if it is only a small A structured set of questions administered to the number then enclose the number in parentheses; respondents personally, by telephone, by mail, or by If a number is part of a measurement, statistic or electronic means. money, it should be written in figures and; This should be approved by credible people before Percentage should be rounded up or down to a whole distributing to your respondents. number. Basic Principle in Designing Survey Questionnaire Acronyms Balance between your need to get the maximum Acronyms should be written full the first time you amount of information and from disfranchising the used it. respondents. Avoid ‘survey fatigue’ or questionnaires that are too long. KJ & M.D. - SERVANTL.  Survey must also be clear and can easily understand PREPARE YOUR DATA by your respondents. If your data is expressed in words, it should be converted Avoid ‘double-barreled questions’ to numerical form to quantify them. Be content-wise. B clear with your questions. DATA TABULATION Be sure that it is reliable and valid. - Put your data in a table and classify them according to frequency and percentage. Types of Survey Questionnaire 1. Open-ended questions – it does not have a predetermined options or answers. These questions typically ask the “how” and “why” of something. 2. Dichotomous questions – has two possible answers, often ether yes/no, true/false, or agree/disagree. 3. Multiple-response questions – it provides more than one answer 4. Matrix questions – these are the ratings you want respondents to choose for each statement. 5. Likert Scale – a five-point scale to determine the ANALYZING THE DATA respondent’s answer to your questions with one end There are two methods in analyzing data: being the most positive answer and the other end Descriptive Statistical Techniques being the most negative answer. 6. Contingency questions – intended for certain Advanced Quantitative Analytical Methods respondents only, depending on the provided answers. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES Simply describe the basic features of your data. It Experimental shows the summaries of your sample and measures. For experimentation, it includes treatment with - Frequency Distribution Table (FDT) pretest and post-test. - Measures of Central Tendency A. Treatment – Evaluation - Standard Deviation B. Pre-test – treatment – post-test - Variance and Covariance C. Pre-test – multiple treatments – post-test D. Pre-test – treatment – immediate post-test – 6 Frequency Distribution Table mos. - post-test – 1 yr. - post-test. This is a table that shows the data and their frequency or how often they occur in your study. Measurement Scale Example: 1. Nominal Scale – shows the classification of things - Suppose that your study is all about book sales. based on specific criteria. The data that you have are the numbers of books 2. Ordinal Scale – it indicates the rank or hierarchical sold at the bookshop over the last 10 days: 23, order of things. 18, 19, 22, 21, 25, 22, 24, 20, 18 3. Interval/Ratio Scale – showing the equal differences or intervals between points on a scale in an arbitrary Measures of Central Tendency manner. This describes your whole set of data with a single value that represents the middle or center of its X. QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS distribution. Steps in Quantitatively Data Analysis - Mean - Prepare – Tabulate – Analyze - Median - Model KJ & M.D. - SERVANTL.  2. For each numerical data, subtract the mean and square the differences. 3. Then get the mean of those squared differences. 4. Take the square root of the mean. Example: Scores of 10 students in Mathematics Quiz X = 22, 19, 28, 23, 20, 25, 22, 20, 18, 18 VARIANCE This is simply the square of the Standard Deviation. COVARIANCE This tool determines the relationship between the two variables, by getting the product of the deviations of two variables from their respective means. XI. STATISTICAL METHODS STATISTICS Defined as the acts of collecting and analyzing Measures of Central Tendency: numerical data. MEDIAN It involves not just collecting the data but also your This is simply the middle value in the distribution analysis and interpretation of data. when you arrange them in either ascending or descending order. INFERENTIAL STATISTICS - Measure of Correlation Coefficient MODE - Pearson Correlation This is the number that appears most frequently in - Spearman’s Rank Correlation Coefficient your data set. - Hypothesis Testing: If no number in your data set appears more than - Chi-Squared Test once, it has no mode. - Student’s T-Test However, if your data set has two modes, that is PEARSON CORRELATION bimodal, a set of three modes is trimodal, and if the data set has four or more modes, it is multimodal. This is used to find a correlation between two variables or even 3 or more variables. The values are between 1 to-1. 1 indicates a positive correlation, 0 means no correlation, and numbers below 0 means negative correlation. STEPS IN GETTING THE STANDARD DEVIATION 1. Get the mean. KJ & M.D. - SERVANTL.  It helps compare whether two groups have different or similar average value. It can also help determine if two population means are equal. SPEARMAN’S RHO Denoted by the Greek letter Rho p, it measures the strength of association between two variables. Similar to Pearson’s Correlation, values lie within 1 to -1 in which 1 indicates perfect association of ranks, -1 “Statistics are the triumph of the quantitative method, and the indicates a perfect negative association of ranks, and quantitative method is the victory of sterility and death.” 0 indicates no association. - Mark Twain XII. SAMPLING PROCEDURE Sampling is the selection of your respondents from a large group of population to get the answer of your questions in your study. Population is the group of people where you choose your sample as representatives of your research. In studying the population, it can be divided into strata or simply subgroups, if there is only one subgroup, it is called as stratum. Margin of Error is the limit of accuracy of your respondents. CHI-SQUARED TTEST This is used for testing relationships between FACTORS AFFECTING SAMPLE SELECTION categorical variables Specifically, it tests the null - Sample Size hypothesis. - Sampling Technique - Heterogeneity of Population - Statistical Techniques - Time and Cost SAMPLING PROCEDURE Probability Sampling Everybody can be your respondents, this will be biased-free because your subjective judgment will be set aside. Simple Random Sampling Choosing of respondents based on pure chance. STUDENT’s T-TEST Systematic Sampling KJ & M.D. - SERVANTL.  It is a list of all elements in the population but instead of using a random numbers table to draw the sample, Snowball Sampling a sampling interval is used. The term “snowball” came from the process of creating a snowball (literal). The more you roll it, the more you it became bigger. When there is no available list of population to help you gather information from the respondents, snowball will help you gather the data. Stratified Sampling This is more on organizing the respondents in to homogenous subsets or subgroups according to shared characteristics. Cluster Sampling It is a process of selecting your respondents into clusters. Meaning, these respondents has the same characteristics which is important to your study. NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING Different from the previous sampling technique because it is not randomly selected and your subjective judgment is important. Availability Sampling These are easily accessible respondents for you. You will pick out people who are easy to find then conduct your data gathering. Voluntary Sampling People who are willing to volunteer or participate on your study. Purposive Sampling It is based on your subjective judgment if it can help your study. You will select people or respondents whom you think can be useful for your research or can provide answers to your questions. Quota Sampling More like Stratified Sampling but it will be done through availability or Snowball Sampling. KJ & M.D. - SERVANTL.