Psychology: Socialization and Self-Concept PDF

play our roles well, and disapproval when we play roles badly. Expect people to behave in way that fits that role, and have them even more when roles are stereotyped.           **Reference groups** -- the group to which people refer in evaluating themselves. People's beliefs, attitudes, behaviours....

play our roles well, and disapproval when we play roles badly. Expect people to behave in way that fits that role, and have them even more when roles are stereotyped.           **Reference groups** -- the group to which people refer in evaluating themselves. People's beliefs, attitudes, behaviours. \-      Constantly looking for [external groups that align with our beliefs/attitudes/behaviours]. Influences our social decisions.           **Culture and socialization** -- important contributions of society to our personal development, the people and culture in which we live.           **[George Herbert Mead: The I and the Me]**          **Charles Cooley** and **George Herbert Mead** both thought **others** could play a significant role in how we view ourselves, but differed in how they thought this would happen. \-      Cooley thought [everyone] a person interacts with in a lifetime influences their identity \-      Mead thought this was more restricted -- only [certain people] can and only in [certain periods] of life.           **Mead** developed the idea of **social behaviourism**, the mind and self-emerge through the process of communicating with others (beginning of ***symbolic interactionism***).  \-      Infants + children were not influenced by others in any way, merely imitate others, and see themselves as being the focus of their own world and don't care what others think of them. Lack ability to take perspective of another person -- related to **Piaget's** concept of egocentrism.           As we grow up, how others perceive us is more important, 3 stages:          1. **Preparatory stage** -- [imitation], ex. play with pots and pans when parents are cooking. As they grow older, focus more on communication with others instead of simple imitation, and get practice using symbols (gestures/words).           2. **Play stage** -- more [aware of social relationships], reflected in children's tendency to **pretend role play** as others like firefighters, doctors, etc.  \-      Mentally assuming perspective of others and acting based on their perceived point of view.           3. **Game stage** -- Start to understand attitudes/beliefs/behavior of "**generalized other**" (society as a whole). With this comes whole new understanding of society. Also realize people can take on multiple roles. Also realize others perceive them, and are influenced by these perceptions and are concerned by reactions of others to what they do. But don't care about reactions of everyone, only significant others (important relationships, ex. parents/teachers/close peers).  ·       Believe this last stage led to development of the **"I"** and **"me".** ·       **Me** = how the individual believes the generalized other perceives it, the social self, and the "I" is our response to the "me".  ·       **I** = the response of the individual to the "me" aka [attitudes of others].   ·       **Me** = society's view (that's me!), the part of self-formed in interaction with others and social environment, and I = individual identity stepping in and our personal responses to what society thinks.  ¨     The "I" is the spontaneous and autonomous part of our unified self.          Charles Cooley -- **[Looking Glass Self ]**          **Socialization** describes the process by which [people learn the attitudes, behaviours, and values] expected by their culture/community.  \-      Can be learned through parents, peers, person at supermarket, celebrity, etc. \-      Socialization also shapes our **self-image**, and **Charles Cooley** used the term "**looking glass self"** to describe this process -- idea that a person's [sense of self] develops from interpersonal interactions with others.           Thought this happened in 3 steps 1\) *How do I appear to others? * 2\) What must others think of me? (shy, intelligent, awkward) 3\) *Revise how we think about ourselves* (based on correct OR incorrect perceptions).           Critical aspect of this theory is Cooley believed we are not actually being influenced by opinions of others, but *what we **imagine** the opinions of other people to be. * \-      Ex. Say we have teacher grading paper harshly, and doing it because they think that student has a lot of potential. But student gets paper back, think the teacher did so because student is not very intelligent, and came to conclusion they're not very good at literary analysis. Might result in student putting less effort into the class. \-      But can also be influenced by [future interactions] -- student might talk to teacher, and student was able to revise their incorrect perceptions and develop a different perspective.           **Perception, Prejudice, and Bias **          **[Attribution Theory]** -- Basic Covariation         [Explain the behavior of other people] by breaking down our understanding/explanation of their behaviours to factors about them, and factors related to their [environment/surroundings.] \-      **Internal (dispositional attribution)** -- about them \-      **External (situational attribution)** -- environment \-      When we consider our own behaviours, we are more likely to blame our behaviour on **external factors**.  ·       This is called **attribution theory** -- explaining behaviours around us.           **Optimism** **bias** is belief bad things happen to others, but not to us.          **Covariation model** -- 3 cues of **Kelley's covariation model**:  ·       ***Consistency*** (time), ***Distinctiveness*** (situation), ***Consensus*** (people)  \-      Ex. Take flaky friend, friend forever cancels. Consistent behavior over time. High level of consistent behavior over time, we are more likely related to them as opposed to situation. ·       When ***consistency*** is high = [internal factors] \-      Ex. Very nice friend Jim, but one day he gets so mad at the pizza place. Out of character and distinctive. So much more likely to be related to the environment. **Distinctiveness** = [situational.] \-      Third factor in covariation model -- "**group lateness**" -- if you arrive late at meeting but if 20 other people are late too, high degree of ***consensus***. When a lot of people demonstrate same behavior, we are more likely to attribute behavior to [situational cause].           Attribution Theory -- **Attribution Error** and Culture          We look at behaviour as coming from person's ***internal attributes***, and as being fuelled by [situation/external factors] \-      If in middle, we are a **neutral judge** and see a combination as both.           But often when we look at behaviour of others, we're more likely to attribute their behaviour to **internal factors** instead of considering complex external factors.  \-      We term this the **fundamental attribution error. ** ·       Problematic when looking at complex patients -- we [under-recognize the situational and social problems], and healthcare barriers they can have, blaming them for their own problems.           **Actor-Observer Bias:** we are victims of circumstance, but others are wilful actors. \*\*\*\*\*\*\*          There's also a **cultural** component: the fundamental attribution error occurs more in individualistic societies (NA and Europe), collectivist (Africa and Asia)  \-      Cultures have different ways they explain success and failure \-      In **individualistic** cultures (Western), success is attributed to internal and failure to external \-      In **collectivist** cultures (Eastern), success is attributed to external and failure to external (favour situational attributions when situational factors are emphasized)          **Self-serving bias**: preserving our self-esteem, more common in individualistic cultures. If we succeed it's due to our internal qualities, but if we fail no hit on self-esteem because likely to do with things outside of our control.           **Stereotypes:** **Stereotype Threat** and **Self-fulfilling Prophecies**          **Stereotyping** is attributing a certain thought/cognition to a group of individuals, and **overgeneralizing** (COGNITIVE ACTION) \-      Can involve race, gender, culture, religion, shoe size.  \-      Disadvantages: it's inaccurate \-      Advantages: allows us to rapidly assess large amounts of social data          **Stereotype threat** -- self-fulfilling fear that one will be evaluated based on a [negative stereotype].  \-      Ex. Blue and red students, both perform equally. Next time, implement negative stereotype about blue students, blue students perform worse.  \-      What **stereotype threat** is -- exposure to a negative stereotype surrounding a task can actually cause decrease in the performance of an individual. It [threatens performance].          **Self-fulfilling prophecy** -- stereotypes can lead to behaviours that [affirm the original stereotypes]. \-      "City dwellers are rude" (cognition, stereotyping) -\> I don't like them (affective component, prejudice) -\> I will avoid them (behavioural component, discrimination)  \-      They think I'm rude (cognition) -\> They may not like me (affective)-\> They avoid me (behavioural) -\> City dwellers are rude ·       Continuous circle that feedbacks on itself.           ***Emotion and Cognition*** in **Prejudice**          All [attitudes] have 3 components: affect, behavioural, and cognition. \-      At the core of prejudice is often [fear of frustration].  \-      **Scapegoats** are group of people towards whom the aggression is directed, ex. Jews during World War II.           There are types of personality more subject to prejudice -- the **authoritarian personality**.  \-      They're [obedient to superiors], but don't have much sympathy for those they deem inferior to themselves -- ***oppressive***. And rigid thinkers,***inflexible*** with their viewpoints.  \-      They use prejudice to **protect their ego** and **avoid confronting** aspects of themselves because they're always focussed on others.  \-      Personality type is [hard to change].           **Frustration Aggression Hypothesis --** not personality based, but [more emotional].  \-      Ex. Someone getting **frustrated** can lead to prejudice. When someone's frustrated, frustrations turn to aggressive impulses, and direct that towards the employer. But you may lose your job, so you keep bottling up the aggression -- and rechannel it somewhere else. Often [towards **minorities**]. \-      Display aggression towards other people -- **scapegoating**. Often seen in times of [economic hardship].          **Hypothesis of Relative Deprivation** --upsurge in prejudice when [people are deprived] of something they feel entitled to.  \-      Leads to collective unrest, upsurge in prejudice and discrimination.           Prejudice and Discrimination Based on ***Race, Ethnicity, Power, Social Class, and Prestige***          Prejudice and discrimination usually talked about in relation to racial and ethnic groups. \-      ***Physical characteristics*** with social significance -- some have more meanings than others. Ex. skin color, but not eye color. Attached meaning to skin color.  \-      ***Ethnicity*** -- ex. Puerto Rican, Irish, Japanese. Also include groups like Jews defined more by cultural practices than country of origin.          Can also be based on [power, social class, or prestige]. \-      **Power** -- political power, economic (unfair hiring policies to minorities), personal (laws can limit where someone lives/etc.) \-      **Social Class** -- status is relative, often sets stage for prejudice (people on top maintain differences between themselves and lower class -- the Just World Phenomenon contributes to prejudice).  \-      **Prestige** -- often based on occupation.           **Stigma** -- Social and Self          Extreme disapproval/discrediting of individual by society -- 2 forms: **social stigma** and **self-stigma** \-      **Social stigma** can be fuelled or associated with several other key concepts: **stereotypes, prejudices, discrimination**. Relationship between stigma and these is unclear. ·       Stigma against mental health is big problem -- ex. stereotype is mentally ill are violent (cognition), I become scared of mentally ill (affect, prejudice), so may not want to live with them or hire them (behavior, discrimination)  \-      **Self-stigma** is individual can [internalize] all the negative stereotypes, prejudices, and discriminatory experiences they've had, and may feel [rejected by society].  ·       Ex. someone who has HIV/AIDS and feels the stigma may go into denial that they have the condition, experiences hits from self-esteem and suffer from depression, and display behaviours that isolate themselves from society.           **Social Circles** ·       1^st^ = self ·       2^nd^ = family ·       3^rd^ = society ·       4^th^ = media  ·       Bidirectional relationships between all these groups.  \-      **Media** is major source of stigma, because can depict conditions as being dangerous, etc. Social media is also huge component. \-      **Society** -- interactions between self and society like education/employment/health care and stigmatizing views can affect individual to get a job, healthcare, etc. Use of **legislation and anti-discrimination laws.** \-      **Family** -- family can be shunned by society, or shun individual themselves. Ex. isolate the individual and keep as secret within family. May be detrimental to personal/intimate relationships, and interventions like education/therapy are important.  \-      **Self** -- Can lead to avoidance, denial of condition, suffering of mental health conditions, and no longer participating in society. Useful interventions include educating, access to support groups/resources.           ***Social Perception*** -- **Primacy and Recency Bias**          [First impressions] are  \-      1) **long** (lasts a long time)  \-      2) **strong** (tough to overcome) and  \-      3) **built up** (put extra emphasis on info that helps reinforce first impression, and not info that doesn't).  \-      Called the **primacy bias** -- assessor selection is made based on information presented earlier in the process          Your most recent actions are also very important, and people place a lot of emphasis on your recent actions/performances, more than ones before -- the **recency bias**. \-      Information retention (memory) also has primacy and recency bias.           Social Perception -- **The Halo Effect**          The **halo effect** is tendency people have inherently good/bad natures, rather than looking at individual characteristics. \-      The **physical attractiveness stereotype** -- believe attractive people have more positive personality traits.  ·       Ex. Jim, overall impression is in the middle. His accounting bar is very high, sales negative, leadership is moderately good.  \-      Now imagine, he has overall good impression, even though he has the same actual skillset. We would perceive that the person is much better at other skills not demonstrated. We may perceive he's actually pretty good at sales, regardless of evidence. Same with leadership and accounting.  \-      Almost as if he has a halo on his head -- the **halo effect**. Often happens with celebrities, and greater attractiveness.           Now imagine someone who we think is overall very poor. Even if baseline skills are same, we perceive them to all be lower -- the **reverse halo effect**. Can carry over into how we see other attributes about the person.           Social Perception -- **The Just World Hypothesis -**  "You got what you deserve".           The **"Just World Hypothesis**" - Noble actions performed by an individual, while evil acts are always punished. \-      Suggests there is some kind of special force, cosmic justice at play.  \-      People think in this way because it helps individuals rationalize their good or misfortune. Ex. if I go to school I will be rewarded in life \-      However, world doesn't always work this way, and using this hypothesis we may blame people in poverty for being poor.           When the "just world hypothesis" is *[threatened]*, we can use these **rational techniques** \-      1. Accept reality \-      2. Prevent or correct injustice -- with petition or changes to legal system          **Irrational techniques** can also be used  \-      1. Denial of the situation \-      2. Reinterpreting the events - the outcome, the cause, and the character of the victim.           How do we explain the behavior of other people?  \-      ***Attribution Theory*** -- explaining other people's behavior based on internal vs. external causes  ·       JWH overemphasizes the [internal factors] rather than external (***fundamental attribution error***)          **Ethnocentrism** and **Cultural Relativism** - **In Group** and **Outgroup **          Judging someone else's culture from the position of [your own] culture -- **ethnocentrism** \-      Viewing our own culture to be [superior] to that of others  \-      Can lead to ***cultural bias*** and ***prejudice***          Or you can judge and understand their culture from [within] their culture -- **cultural relativism ** \-      No absolute right or wrong, but we have different cultures who are themselves valid.  \-      Can falter if someone uses it to conduct activities that violate rights of humans no matter what culture they're from.           People within groups share psychological connection between peers, related to culture/spirituality