Airplane Systems - Private Pilot Ground School PDF

Private Pilot Ground School Lesson 2 of 15: Airplane Systems Chapter 2  Pre-Class Agenda Determine who still needs to pay for the course Review how to access FSP  Objectives and Completion Standards Objectives Gain a basic understanding of the main airplane compone...

Private Pilot Ground School Lesson 2 of 15: Airplane Systems Chapter 2  Pre-Class Agenda Determine who still needs to pay for the course Review how to access FSP  Objectives and Completion Standards Objectives Gain a basic understanding of the main airplane components and systems. Learn about the powerplant and related systems. Become familiar with flight instrument functions and operating characteristics, including errors and common malfunctions. Completion Standards Demonstrate understanding of airplane components and systems, powerplant and related systems, and flight instruments during oral quizzing by the instructor. Sequence of Content Powerplant and Related 2.1 Airplanes 2.2 Systems Fuselage Reciprocating Engine Wings Induction Systems Empennage Turbocharging Landing Gear Ignition Systems Engine/Propeller Fuel Systems Pilot's Operating Handbook Oil Systems Cooling Systems 2.3 Flight Instruments Exhaust Systems Propellers Pitot-Static Instruments Electrical Systems Airspeed Indicator Altimeter Vertical Speed Indicator Gyroscopic Instruments Magnetic Compass  2.1 Airplanes Fuselage Wings Empennage Landing Gear Engine/Propeller Pilot's Operating Handbook Field Trip! Main Sections of an Aircraft The Wing  The Tail Trim relieves control pressures & increases stability  The Wheels Shimmy Damper: a hydraulic fluid-filled cylinder that prevents rapid movement of the nose or main landing gear without interfering with slower operations Oleo: pneumatic (under pressure) air–oil hydraulic shock absorber Identify Aircraft Sections Identifying Wheel Components The Aircraft Nose Section Pilot’s Operating Handbook (POH), aka Airplane Flight Manual (AFM)  Airworthiness Directives (ADs) Additional FAA requirements to maintain airworthiness after an aircraft’s original certification Issued when the FAA determines an unsafe condition might exist because of a design defect, maintenance issue, etc… ADs are legally enforceable rules under 14 CFR Part 39 Aircraft owner/operator must maintain records in maintenance logbooks showing compliance for all pertinent ADs. ○ Aircraft’s mechanics are the experts & generally track AD compliance for rental aircraft ○ Some aircraft require pilot AD compliance prior to flight (placard on panel as reminder) ADs are NOT flexible – they cannot be overflown FAA AD Information Page General Aviation Aircraft Required Inspections/Tests/Checks Acronym : AV1ATE  Quiz Questions Which is an inspection required by the FARs? (think “AV1ATE”) A. VOR check every 90 days B. ELT inspection every 24 calendar months C. Annual inspection for all aircraft C. Annual inspection for all aircraft  Aircraft Equipment Required for VFR Day Refer to 14 CFR 91.205 Flight Helpful to use the acronym “A TOMATO FLAMES” Airspeed Indicator Tachometer (for each engine) Oil pressure gauge Manifold pressure gauge Altimeter Temperature gauge (each liquid-cooled engine) Oil temperature gauge (each air-cooled engine) Fuel gauge (each fuel tank) Landing gear position indicator/light(s) – non-fixed gear Anticollision Light System (Strobe & Beacon) (aircraft certified after March 11, 1996) Magnetic Compass Emergency Locator Beacon (ELT) (if required by 14 CFR 91.207) Safety Belt (each occupant > 2 years old)  Aircraft Equipment Required for VFR Night Refer to 14 CFR 91.205 Flight VFR Day Requirements “A TOMATO FLAMES” + “FLAPS” Fuses (spare set) (only if fuses used) Landing Light (electric) – aircraft for hire Anticollision light system Position Lights Source of electrical energy (battery)  Aircraft Placards Refer to 14 CFR 25.791 & 14 CFR 23.1557 Placards affixed to aircraft contain warnings, operating limitations, and reference information. Placards are also documented in the Pilot's Operating Handbook (POH). CAN’T placard an instrument required for flight under 14 CFR 91.205 Non-essential instruments are placarded “INOPERATIVE” Can I placard my Oil Temperature Gauge? How about my Attitude Indicator during  Quiz Questions Select the true statement regarding airworthiness requirements. A. You can fly with an inoperative fuel gauge as long as it is placarded. B. An altimeter is required by 14 CFR 91.205 for VFR flight C. Complying with airworthiness directives is required ONLY if the aircraft is operated for hire. B. An altimeter is required by 14 CFR 91.205 for VFR flight I Noticed Broken Equipment During Preflight. What do I do now? ○ 1st: Check 14 CFR 91.213: Inoperative Instruments and Equipment ○ 2nd: Does the aircraft a Minimum Equipment List (MEL) – most small GA aircraft don’t have an MEL ○ 3rd: Check the Kinds of Operations Equipment List (KOEL) in the POH – older model Cessna 172s typically don’t have one ○ 4th: Review 14 CFR 91.205: Powered civil aircraft with standard category U.S. airworthiness certificates: Instrument and equipment requirements – this is “A TOMATO FLAMES” & “FLAPS” Is the equipment required for your flight? ○ Still unsure? Contact an Aviation Maintenance Technician (AMT), CFI, or experienced pilot ○ Let’s discuss a few likely scenarios…  2.2 Powerplant and Related Systems Reciprocating Engine Oil Systems Induction Systems Cooling Systems Supercharging and Exhaust Systems Turbocharging Propellers Ignition Systems Electrical Systems Fuel Systems Piston-Driven Engine  How Piston-Driven Aircraft Engines Work Suck Squeeze Bang Blow Dual-ignition system: 2 spark Ignition States plugs per cylinder One purpose of the dual-ignition system on an aircraft engine is to provide for improved engine performance. Normal Ignition: smooth burning that ignites when the piston reaches the top of the cylinder head Detonation: fuel in the cylinders explodes instead of burning smoothly 🡪 can occur if the grade of fuel used in an aircraft engine is lower than specified for the engine. Pre-Ignition: uncontrolled combustion of fuel prior to normal ignition Pre-ignition is the uncontrolled firing of the fuel/air charge in advance of normal spark  Quiz Questions What is detonation in a piston engine? A. Fuel in the cylinders explode instead of burning smoothly B. Uncontrolled combustion of fuel prior to normal ignition C. Smooth burning that ignites when the piston reaches the top of the cylinder head A. Fuel in the cylinders explode instead of burning smoothly Induction Systems : gets fuel/air to the engine Carbureted Engine Induction Control: provides fuel & air to engine Manifold Pressure Gauge: measures pressure within the intake manifold (where air enters the engine) Fixed-Pitch Propeller Constant-Speed Propeller Mixture Control: controls fuel flow Throttle Control: controls air flow FUEL AIR  Mixture: Rich vs. Lean Fuel molecules absorb more heat than air. Enriching mixture adds fuel molecules, more heat absorbed, lower combustion temp Leaning mixture removes fuel molecules, less heat absorbed, higher combustion temp EGT: Exhaust Gas Temp How Carburetor Icing Forms  Carburetor Icing Potential It’s sunny, 90˚F, and not a cloud in the sky. Can I still get Carb Icing?  Carburetor Heat (Carb Heat) Carb Heat: when the cockpit Carburetor Heat Control is pulled out, heated air from the Exhaust Manifold Shroud is routed & injected directly into the Carburetor Intake Air Intake Used to melt any ice build up in the Carburetor Venturi The presence of carburetor ice in an aircraft equipped with a fixed-pitch propeller can be verified by applying carburetor heat and noting a decrease in RPM and then a gradual increase in RPM (as the Exhaust Manifold Shroud ice melts)  Carburetor Heat (Carb Heat) Heated air is less dense - hot air molecules have more energy & expand farther apart which lowers air density The lower air density makes the air/fuel ratio required for combustion less efficient The fuel/air mixture becomes richer when carburetor heat is applied 🡪 LESS air in fuel/air ratio will lead to MORE fuel (richer fuel) Using Carb Heat will decrease engine efficiency & cause a slight drop in RPMs Practical Application: You are in Cruise flight and the RPMs suddenly begin to drop without you changing any conditions. What is the likely culprit? Exhaust Manifold Shroud  Fuel Injection (no carburetor) Fuel Discharge Nozzle Fuel Discharge Nozzle Fuel Fuel Discharge Discharge Nozzle Nozzle  Quiz Questions Select the true statement regarding aircraft engines. A. Engine power increases with carb heat because hot air is more dense. B. The fuel/air mixture should always be adjusted when changing altitudes. C. Fuel injection systems include fuel pumps, a fuel control unit, a fuel manifold valve, and fuel discharge nozzles C. Fuel injection systems include fuel pumps, a fuel control unit, a fuel manifold valve, and fuel discharge nozzles Aviation Fuel is Colored Most available  What type of fuel do we use? First check the aircraft’s Pilot Operating Handbook (POH) Most piston-driven General Aviation (GA) aircraft use Aviation Gasoline (AVGAS) Rules for Avian’s Cessna 172s: * Use Aviation Gas: AVGAS 100LL or AVGAS 100 standard * Don’t use AVGAS 80 (low octane increases chance of combustion damage) If the recommended octane is not available, the next higher octane aviation gas should be substituted * NEVER use JET A (it’s a diesel/kerosene mix) Avian aircraft not authorized to use the new Unleaded (UL) variant What do we do if the FBO doesn't have the fuel we want? Turbo-charged Engine Magnetos: independent electricity for the engine Magnetos are engine driven Generate ignition in the cylinders Separate from electrical system Two separate magnetos each go to a separate spark plug in each cylinder When turned “off” magnetos are grounded preventing electricity to be distributed to the spark plugs If the engine magneto switch is turned to “OFF” but the engine continues to run, the most probable cause is a broken magneto ground wire Magneto to Engine  Quiz Questions You turn the Ignition Switch to OFF, but the engine continues to run. What is the most probable cause? A. The magneto is in an over-voltage condition B. A broken magneto ground wire C. The engine has overheated and is spontaneously combusting B. A broken magneto ground wire Oil System: removes heat from engine Air Intake System: cools engine compartment The Exhaust Manifold Air Circulation System You turn on the Cabin Heat and begin to feel dizzy with an increasing headache. What is the most likely culprit and what should you do? Propellers are Merry-Go-Rounds  Propeller Blade Twisting Slowest Highest velocity velocity The propeller blade twists from the root to the tip to ensure the blade has a constant Angle of Attack that provides the maximum thrust. Let’s grab a prop and take a look at the twisting  Constant-speed propeller Changes blade angle to produce most efficient thrust for situation High “Course” Pitch Cruise Flight Prop 55˚ Blade Angle Control 90˚ 55˚ 90˚ Low “Fine” Pitch 26˚ Takeoff 0˚ 0˚ 26˚ Blade Angle  Electrical System Alternator: generates DC power & charges battery Battery: stores electricity Ammeter: measures electrical current (Amps) - Above 0: alternator charging battery (good!) - Below 0: alternator not charging battery (bad!) Alternator Loadmeter: measure electrical current produced by alternator (doesn’t tell if battery is charging) Master Switch: provides - Left Side: Power to Alternator - Right Side: Power to Battery Circuit Breakers and Fuses: prevents too much Ammeter Master Switch power overloading electrical systems You are in Cruise Flight and the Ammeter is below 0. What is happening? What can you do?  2.3 Flight Instruments Pitot-Static Instruments Airspeed Indicator Altimeter Vertical Speed Indicator Gyroscopic Instruments Magnetic Compass  Standard Atmospheric Considerations The Standard atmosphere is measured from Sea Level Pressure: 29.92 Inches of Mercury (in-Hg) Pressure: 1013 millibars (mB) (use outside U.S.) Temperature: 15°C (59°F) Pressure decreases - 1 inch of Mercury (in-Hg) per 1,000 feet elevation gain Temperature decreases – 2˚C per  Instrument Panel: “The Six Pack” Attitude Indicator / Altimeter Airspeed Indicator Artificial Horizon Heading Indicator (HI) Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) Turn Coordinator  Pitot-Static Instruments Airspeed Indicator Altimeter Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)  Pitot-Static System If the Pitot Tube AND Static Port are BOTH blocked: the Airspeed Indicator, Altimeter, and Vertical Speed Indictor (VSI) are ALL affected  Quiz Questions If the static port & pitot tube are both blocked, which instruments are affected? A. Altimeter, Turn Coordinator, and Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) B. Airspeed Indicator, Vertical Speed Indicator, and Altimeter C. Heading Indicator, Turn Coordinator, and Attitude Indicator B. Airspeed Indicator, Vertical Speed Indicator, and Altimeter  Airspeed Indicator The airspeed indicator is the ONLY instrument that will become inoperative if the pitot tube becomes blocked  Pitot Tube Blockages Blocked Ram Air & Drain Hole & Open Static System: airspeed indicator becomes an altimeter. - Level Flight: Remains constant - In a Climb: airspeed higher than actual - In a Descent: airspeed lower than actual Blocked Ram Air & Drain Hole What can cause a blocked Pitot Tube? What open: airspeed reads 0 can we do about it from the cockpit?  Blocked Static System only Airspeed Errors: correct airspeed only at blockage altitude. Climb: airspeed reads lower than at blockage altitude Descent: airspeed reads higher than at blockage What can cause a blocked Static Port? altitude How can we ensure we don’t take off with it blocked?  Airspeed Markings Airspeed in measured 2 ways: Knots: nautical miles (6076’) per hour MPH: uses statute miles (5280’) per hour V-Speeds VX — Best angle of climb (changes with DA) VY — Best rate of climb (changes with DA) VS0 — Stalling speed in the landing configuration (bottom of WHITE arc) VS1 — Stalling speed in the takeoff configuration (bottom of GREEN arc) VFE — Maximum flaps extended speed (top of WHITE ARC) VNO — Maximum structural cruising speed (bottom of YELLOW Arc) VNE — Never-exceed speed (RED line) VA — Maneuvering speed (changes with weight) Airspeed Indicator Airspeed Tape  Quiz Questions What is the definition of VSO? A. Stalling Speed in a landing configuration B. Stalling Speed in a takeoff configuration C. Maximum Flaps Extend speed A. Stalling Speed in a landing configuration  Quiz Questions According to these airspeed indicators, what is the maximum speed with flaps fully extended? A. (1) 96 knots; (2) 100 knots B. (1) 91 knots; (2) 100 knots C. (1) 91 knots; (2) 91 knots C. (1) 91 knots; (2) 91 knots (top of WHITE arc)  Quiz Questions Which speed represents Maneuvering Speed? A. VS1 B. VNE C. VA C. VA  Types of Airspeed Indicated Airspeed Airspeed read off the airspeed indicator Calibrated Airspeed Indicated Airspeed corrected for installation errors (refer to POH) True Airspeed The aircraft’s actual speed through the air Ground Speed Indicated Airspeed The speed of the aircraft over the ground Altimeter How an Altimeter Works  Types of Altitude Density Altitude (DA): Pressure Altitude corrected Indicated Altitude: altitude read off the Instrument for non-standard temperature. The altitude of the Calibrated Altitude: Indicated altitude Corrected aircraft above standard sea level. Used to determine for installation errors how the aircraft will perform. Pressure Altitude (PA): Indicated altitude in standard pressure (29.92” Hg) True Altitude: actual altitude (feet) above Mean Sea Pressure Altitude will be equal to True Altitude Level (MSL) when standard atmospheric conditions exist. True Altitude is the altimeter setting value to which the barometric pressure scale of the altimeter is set so the altimeter indicates true altitude at field elevation 🡪 when we set the local altimeter setting prior to taxi, we are setting the altimeter to the True Altitude (‘MSL) Below 18,000’ MSL, the altimeter should be frequently reset to the local altimeter setting (every 100 NM of travel at a minimum) Indicated Altitude and True Altitude are the same when at Sea Level under Standard Conditions. Absolute Altitude: actual altitude Above Ground  Calculating Density Altitude (DA) Compute DA for performance data: Pressure Altitude (PA): 3000’ Temp: +20˚ C What is the approximate DA? 4,400 feet  Altimeter Readings: Practical Application Assume that you land at an airport with your altimeter set to 29.92 in. Hg, forgetting to set it to the current setting of 30.00 in. Hg. What will the altimeter read if the field elevation is 2,000 feet MSL? How to Solve: 1st: Use the Indicated Altimeter Reading Formula: ((Previous Altimeter Setting (in-Hg) - Current Altimeter Setting (in-Hg)) x 1000) + Current Field Elevation (feet MSL) = Indicated Altimeter Reading (feet MSL) 2nd: Apply Formula to Known Conditions: Previous Altimeter Setting (29.92 in-Hg) - Current Altimeter Setting (30.00 in-Hg) = Pressure Difference of -0.08 in-Hg 🡪 Pressure Difference of -0.08 in-Hg x 1000 = a minus (-) 80’ Altitude Difference 🡪 Current Field Elevation (2,000’ MSL) + -80’ Altitude Difference = 1920’ Indicated Altitude (MSL) 3rd: Answer: the altimeter will read 1,920 feet MSL  Quiz Questions Assume that you land at an airport with your altimeter set to 29.92 in. Hg, forgetting to set it to the current setting of 30.00 in. Hg. What will the altimeter read if the field elevation is 2,000 feet MSL? A. 2,800 feet MSL B. 2,080 feet MSL C. 1,920 feet MSL C. 1,920 feet MSL Effect of Temperature on Indicated Altitude: Remember “High to Low = Look out below” Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)  Gyroscopic Instruments Attitude Indicator Turn Coordinator Heading Indicator Gyroscopic Instruments Work by: Rigidity in Space and Precession Let’s spin the wheel Vacuum Instruments Attitude Indicator Heading Indicator Vacuum System Attitude Indicator Determining Pitch and Bank from the Attitude Indicator  Heading Indicator The Heading Indicator is a gyroscopic instrument that YOU must align with the magnetic compass Recommend alignment at least every 15 minutes of flight  Quiz Questions Select a true statement regarding the flight instruments: A. The Heading Indicator is a gyroscopic instrument that you must periodically align with the magnetic compass. B. The Vertical Speed Indicator uses Pitot Tube pressure to measure rate of climb or descent. C. The Turn Coordinator is powered by the vacuum system A. The Heading Indicator is a gyroscopic instrument that you must periodically align with the magnetic compass. Turn Coordinator  Turn Coordinator Electric (DC power) Uses the principle of precession Indicates the Rate of Turn The ball shows coordinated flight when centered & uncoordinated flight when not centered (slip / skid) Indicates “standard rate” turns = 3˚ per second when wing aligned with lower WHITE tic mark  Quiz Questions The Turn Coordinator provides an indication of: A. Angle of Bank B. Pitch and Rates of Roll C. Rate of Turn C. Rate of Turn Turn Coordinator Turn and Slip Indicator  Magnetic “Wet” Compass During flight, the indications of a magnetic compass are accurate ONLY in Magnetic Compass straight-and-level unaccelerated flight Aircraft Deviation card: provides headings to steer to compensate for errors on the compass caused by the aircrafts moving parts and electrical equipment (LAPD) Deviation is caused by magnetic fields Deviation Card within the aircraft distorting the Earth’s  Magnetic “Wet” Compass Magnetic Dip (only on East & West headings) Magnetic Compass ANDS Acceleration Error While Accelerating: compass turns towards North While Decelerating: compass turns towards South ANDS: Accelerate North, Decelerate South Deviation Card  Magnetic “Wet” Compass Turning Error (on North or South Magnetic Compass headings) ○ Turn from North (lags): compass turns briefly in opposite direction then returns to correct direction ○ In the Northern Hemisphere, a magnetic compass will normally indicate initially a turn towards the west if a right turn is entered from a North Heading Deviation Card ○ Turn from South (leads): compass briefly leads the turn in the same direction then  Magnetic “Wet” Compass When do I roll out (stop the turn)? (UNOS) Magnetic Compass Undershoot turns to the North Overshoot turns to the South North: What heading to overshoot: (Latitude˚ /2) + 15˚ prior to North heading Example for Bremerton: (48˚Latitude/2 = 24 ˚) + 15˚ = 39˚(round up to 40˚) 🡪 if beginning turn from the East (090˚), start rollout (090˚ - 040˚ = 050˚) Back up mag compass turns with timing. Deviation Card Standard Rate Turn (SRT): 3˚ per second.  Magnetic Variation Variation: difference between True north and Magnetic North Integrated Flight Displays Attitude and Heading Reference System (AHRS): provides attitude, heading, rate of turn, and slip/skid information ○ Uses inertial sensors for attitude, magnetometer for heading, and often Global Positioning System (GPS) Air Data Computer (ADC): integrates pitot tube, static source, and Outside Air Temperature (OAT) probe to provide data to the flight display system ○ Provides readings to the Airspeed Indicator, Altimeter, and VSI  Quiz Questions Select the true statement regarding Integrated Flight Displays: A. The Attitude and Heading Reference System (AHRS) provides attitude, heading, rate of turn, and slip/skid information. B. The Air Data Computer (ADC) determines readings for the altimeter, VSI, and Turn Coordinator C. The Attitude and Heading Reference System (AHRS) uses the magnetometer for attitude, inertial sensors for heading, and often a GPS A. The Attitude and Heading Reference System (AHRS) provides attitude, heading, rate of turn, and slip/skid information.  Homework for Next Class Read: Jeppesen’s Guided Flight Discovery Private Pilot Handbook Chapter 3: Aerodynamic Principles Read: FAA’s Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge Chapter 5: Aerodynamics of Flight  Any Questions? Email: [email protected] Cell: (318) 205-2748 Avian Front Desk: 360.674.2111