Data Types and Collection Methods PDF

Data Types and Collection Methods Portion Two Specific Contents to be Covered  Types of Data  Data Collection Methods At the end of this lesson, participants will be able to:  Identify common types of data  Make a distinction among data collection method...

Data Types and Collection Methods Portion Two Specific Contents to be Covered  Types of Data  Data Collection Methods At the end of this lesson, participants will be able to:  Identify common types of data  Make a distinction among data collection methods  Appreciate advantages and disadvantages of different data collection methods  Reasonably select appropriate data collection methods in future carrier  Types of Data … Cont’d A datum is any piece of collected information. Two types of data: 1. Primary Data: are those which are collected afresh and for the first time thus happen to be original in character.  Usually collected through questionnaires, interviews, observation, FGD, etc. and thus happen to be original in character. 2. Secondary Data: are those which have already been collected by someone else and which have already been passed through the statistical process.  Types of Data … Cont’d Difference Between Primary Data Secondary Data Primary Data Secondary Data Data Real time data Past data Process Very involved Quick and easy Source Surveys, observations, Government publications, experiments, websites, books, journal questionnaire, articles, internal records etc. personal interview, etc. Cost effectiveness Expensive Economical Collection time Long Short Specific Always specific to the May or may not be specific to researcher's needs. the researcher's need. Available in Crude form Refined form Accuracy and More Relatively less Reliability  Types of Data … Cont’d I. Quantitative data  Any data that measure or are associated with a measurement of the quantity of something.  They invariably assume numerical values.  Quantitative data can be further subdivided into two categories. A. Discrete data which take values in a finite or countably infinite set of numbers,  They are often represented by integers, say, 0, 1, 2, etc; Eg: counts, number of arrivals, or number of successes.  Types of Data … Cont’d B. Continuous data which takes values in an interval of numbers.  These are also known as scale data, interval data, or measurement data.  Often characterized by fractions or decimals: 3.82, 7.0001, etc.  Eg: Height, weight, length, time, etc.  Types of Data … Cont’d II. Qualitative Data  Any type of data that are not numerical, or do not represent numerical quantities. Eg: Subject’s name, gender, race/ethnicity, political party, socioeconomic status, class rank, driver’s license number, and social security number.  Some data look to be quantitative but are not, because they do not represent numerical quantities and do not obey mathematical rules.  Eg: a person’s shoe size  Factors may be Nominal and ordinal.  Types of Data … Cont’d Some Advantages of using Primary data:  The investigator collects data specific to the problem under study.  There is no doubt about the quality of the data collected (for the investigator).  If required, it may be possible to obtain additional data during the study period.  Types of Data … Cont’d Some Disadvantages of using Primary data (for reluctant/ uninterested investigators): 1. The investigator has to contend with all the hassles of data collection-  Deciding why, what, how, when to collect  Getting the data collected (personally or through others)  Getting funding and dealing with funding agencies  Ethical considerations (consent, permissions, etc.)  Types of Data … Cont’d 2. Ensuring the data collected is of a high standard-  All desired data is obtained accurately, and in the format it is required in  There is no fake/cooked up data  Unnecessary/useless data has not been included 3. Cost of obtaining the data is often the major expense in studies Some Advantages Types of Dataof… using secondary data: Cont’d  The data’s already there- no hassles of data collection  It is less expensive  The investigator is not personally responsible for the quality of data (“I didn’t do it”) Some disadvantages of using secondary data:  The investigator cannot decide what is collected (if specific data about something is required, for instance).  One can only hope that the data is of good quality  Obtaining additional data (or even clarification) about something Data Collection Methods  1. Observation Method … (Cont’d)  The most commonly used method especially in studies relating to behavioral sciences.  We all observe things around us, but this sort of observation is not scientific observation.  Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection for the researcher,  When it serves a formulated research purpose,  If systematically planned and recorded and  If subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability.  1. Observation Method … (Cont’d) The main advantage of this method  Subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done accurately.  Information obtained under this method relates to what is currently happening;  It is not complicated by either the past behavior or future intentions or attitudes. 1. Observation Method … (Cont’d)  Is independent of respondents’ willingness to respond and as such is relatively less demanding of active cooperation on the part of respondents  Suitable in studies which deal with subjects (i.e., respondents) who are not capable of giving verbal reports of their feelings for one reason or the other 1. Observation Method … (Cont’d) Limitations  It is an expensive method  The information provided by this method is very limited  Sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the observational task While using this method, the researcher should keep in mind things like:  What should be observed?  How the observations should be recorded?  Or how the accuracy of observation can be ensured?  1. Observation Method … (Cont’d) Observation can be Structured or Unstructured  If observation is characterized by a careful definition of the units to be observed, the observed information is recorded, conditions of observation and the selection of pertinent data of observation is standardized, then the observation is structured observation.  But when observation is to take place without these characteristics to be thought of in advance, the same is termed as unstructured observation.  1. Observation Method … (Cont’d)  Structured observation:  Considered appropriate in descriptive studies  Most likely to be relatively unstructured in an exploratory study  Careful definition of the units to be observed  Style of recording the observed information  Standardized observation and selection of pertinent data for observation  Unstructured observation- when the observation lacks the above characteristics  1. Observation Method … (Cont’d) Observation can also be participant or non-participant  In participant observation the observer observes by making himself, more or less, a member of the group he is observing so that he can experience what the members of the group experience  But, when the observer observes as a detached emissary without any attempt on his part to experience through participation what others feel, it is non-participant observation. (When the observer is observing in such a manner that his presence may be unknown to the people he is observing, such an observation is described as disguised observation.)  1. Observation Method … (Cont’d) Merits of the participant type of observation: The researcher  Is enabled to record the natural behavior of the group.  Can even gather information which could not easily be obtained if he observes in other ways.  Can even verify the truth of statements made by informants in the context of a questionnaire or a schedule. Demerits of this type of observation  The observer may lose the objectivity to the extent he participates emotionally;  The problem of observation-control is not solved;  It may narrow-down the researcher’s range of experience.  1. Observation Method … (Cont’d) Observation can also be controlled or uncontrolled  If the observation takes place in the natural setting, it may be termed as uncontrolled observation, but when observation takes place according to definite pre-arranged plans, involving experimental procedure, the same is then termed controlled observation.  In non-controlled observation, no attempt is made to use precision instruments.  The major aim of this type of observation is to get a spontaneous picture of life and persons.  1. Observation Method … (Cont’d)  It has a tendency to supply naturalness and completeness of behavior, allowing sufficient time for observing it.  But in controlled observation, we use mechanical (or precision) instruments as aids to accuracy and standardization.  Such observation has a tendency to supply formalized data upon which generalizations can be built with some degree of assurance.  The main pitfall of non-controlled observation is that of subjective interpretation.  1. Observation Method … (Cont’d) There is also the danger of having the feeling that we know more about the observed phenomena than we actually do.  Generally, controlled observation takes place in various experiments that are carried out in a laboratory or under controlled conditions, whereas uncontrolled observation is resorted to in case of exploratory researches. 2. Interview Method  2. Interview Method …. (Cont’d)  Involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses.  Can be done through I. Face-to-Face interviews, II. Telephone interviews, III. MSN messenger interviews, IV. E-mail interviews.  2. Interview Method …. (Cont’d) I. Face-to-face interviews/Personal interviews: Synchronous Communication of time and place  Requires a person known as the interviewer asking questions generally in a face-to-face contact to the other person or persons.  The interviewee may also ask certain questions and the interviewer responds  May be in the form of direct personal investigation or it may be indirect oral investigation.  2. Interview Method …. (Cont’d)  In the case of direct personal investigation the interviewer has to be on the spot and has to collect the information personally from the sources concerned.  Suitable for intensive investigations  In certain cases it may not be possible or worthwhile to contact directly the persons concerned and the direct personal investigation technique may not be used.  In this case indirect oral investigation is applied  2. Interview Method …. (Cont’d) Guidelines for Survey Interviewing  Appearance demeanor/manner: Interviewers should dress in a fashion similar to that of the people they will be interviewing  Familiarity with the questionnaire: The interviewer must study the questions carefully and must practice reading it aloud  Following question wording exactly: change in the wording of a given question may lead to answer “Yes” rather than “No”.  Recording responses exactly: No attempt should be made to summarize, paraphrase or correct bad grammar  Probing for responses: Soliciting a more complete answer to a question  2. Interview Method …. (Cont’d) Advantages of Face-to-face interviews  Social cues such as voice, intonation, body language etc. of the interviewee  No significant time delay between question and answer;  The answer of the interviewee is more spontaneous, without an extended reflection.  Can be tape recorded, of course with the permission of the interviewee.  2. Interview Method …. (Cont’d)  The interviewer has a lot of possibilities to create a good interview ambience.  Termination of a Face-to-Face interview is easy, compared to other interview methods.  Clues can be given that the end of the interview is near, for example by shuffling the papers and turning off the tape recorder.  2. Interview Method …. (Cont’d) Taking notes during the interview is important for the interviewer, even if the interview is tape recorded: (1) To check if all the questions have been answered, (2) In case of malfunctioning of the tape recorder, and  2. Interview Method … (Cont’d) II. Telephone Interviews: Synchronous Communication of Time, Asynchronous Communication of Place Advantages  Relatively easy access to any area (geographical access), hard to reach populations, Closed sites such as hospitals religious communities, prisons, the military, and cults), to dangerous or politically sensitive sites like in war zones, or sites where diseases are rife, without needing to grapple with the danger-and the bureaucracy-of visiting the area (personal safety)  2. Interview Method …. (Cont’d)  Good for sensitive accounts that participants might be reluctant to discuss them face-to-face with an interviewer.  Saves many and time (regarding transportation and going many times to get the respondent)  The interviewer can dress any way  The interviewer can communicate a lot about themselves over the phone, however, even though they can’t be seen.  Allow greater control over data collection if several interviewers are engaged in the project  As in face-to-face interviews, the interview can be tape recorded. 2. Interview Method …. (Cont’d) Disadvantages  Limited to people who have telephones  May be the proliferation of bogus “surveys”  For the researcher, the ease with which people can hang up is another short coming of telephone surveys  D/t behavior patterns associated with the utilization of the answering machine could emerge  May be time consuming  Reduction of social cues  2. Interview Method …. (Cont’d) III. MSN messenger interviews: Synchronous communication of time, asynchronous communication of place  It is also possible to interview someone via an instant messaging /chatting/ service such as MSN Messenger.  These interviews allow you to talk to people at great distances and give you the benefit of adapting your questioning based on the responses you receive.  2. Interview Method …. (Cont’d) Advantages of MSN messenger interviews  Saves costs and time, because the interviewer does not have to travel to the interviewee.  Disturbing background noises (e.g. when people are working with machinery outside the building) are not recorded  The outcome can directly be downloaded on the computer Disadvantages of MSN messenger interviews  Absence of social cues.  The interviewer has no view on the situation in which the interviewee is situated.  2. Interview Method …. (Cont’d) IV. E-mail interviews: Asynchronous Communication of Time & Place  If people are as busy as ever and are increasingly hard to catch, E- mail is the other option for interviews.  Email interview allows interview subjects time to respond at their first opportunity, and the method doesn't require the journalist to spend all of his free time trying to make contact with the subject.  2. Interview Method …. (Cont’d) Advantages of E-mail interviews  The extended access to participants, compared to FTF interviews  Disturbing background noises are not recorded.  E-mail interview can be much cheaper than e.g. a face to face interview, because there are no travelling costs. 2. Interview Method …. (Cont’d)  Busy interviewees do not have to identify a mutually convenient time to talk to each other.  It is possible to interview in a foreign language even if the interviewer is insufficiently fluent for a face-to-face interview  The outcome of an e-mail interview can directly be downloaded on the computer, so there is no transcription time  2. Interview Method …. (Cont’d) Disadvantages of E-mail interviews  The complete lack of social cues  May also cost a lot of time. Interviewee might have to wait sometimes for days or weeks before he/she answers the questions. (Lack of interest or may forget to reply)  2. Interview Method …. (Cont’d)  Data can be collected by listening to individuals, recording, filming their responses, or a combination of methods.  Based on the structure of the interview, there are three most common types of interviewing: I. Unstructured interview II. Semi-structured interview III. Structured interview  2. Interview Method …. (Cont’d) I. Unstructured interview  Sometimes called as in-depth life history interviews  Favored approach for life history research.  The participant is free to talk about what he or she deems important, with little directional influence from the researcher.  Can only be used for qualitative research.  People often assume that this type of interviewing is the easiest. However, this is not necessarily the case.  This can be difficult and takes tact, diplomacy and perseverance.  Also, some people find it very difficult to remain quiet while another person talks, sometimes for hours on end.  2. Interview Method …. (Cont’d) In Unstructured Interview, Researchers:  Attempts to achieve a holistic understanding of the interviewees’ point of view or situation.  Have to be able to establish rapport with the participant  Have to be trusted if someone is to reveal intimate life information.  Need to remain alert, recognizing important information and probing for more detail.  Need to know how to tactfully steer someone back from totally irrelevant digressions.  Can produce a great deal of data which can be difficult to analyze. II.2.Semi-structured Interview Method …. (Cont’d) Interviews  The most common type of interview used in qualitative research.  To compare & contrast with information gained in other interviews.  Guided by flexible schedules (list of questions or topics)  This is taken to each interview to ensure continuity.  In some research, the schedule is updated and revised to include more topics which have arisen as a result of the previous interview.  Probing is crucial (using when, who, how, etc. questions)  It takes more than an hour usually  2. Interview Method …. (Cont’d) III. Structured Interviews  Are used frequently in market research.  The interviewer asks you a series of questions and ticks boxes with your response (questionnaires).  This research method is highly structured – hence the name.  Are used in quantitative research and can be conducted face-to- face or over the telephone  3. Questionnaires  Questionnaires are set of questions or statements usually used in surveys and experiments  There are three basic types A. Close-ended questionnaires  Most popular  Are used to generate statistics in quantitative research.  As these questionnaires follow a set format, ease of analysis.  Researcher structured responses  Greater uniformity of response  Pre-coded, hence can be directly entered to statistical software 3. Questionnaires … Cont’d B. Open-ended questionnaires  Are used in qualitative research although some researchers will quantify the answers during the analysis stage.  Does not contain boxes to tick, but a blank section to write  Data analysis is more complex.  Fewer questionnaires need to be distributed.  Self-expressed, (Less uniformity in responses)  Cannot be directly entered to statistical software, etc; must be post- coded  Less popular with researchers  3. Questionnaires … Cont’d C. Combination of both  Many researchers tend to use  Many questionnaires begin with a series of closed questions, with boxes to tick or scales to rank, and then finish with a section of open questions for more detailed response.  3. Questionnaires … Cont’d General Guidelines for Writing (Questionnaire Construction) and Asking Questions  Choose appropriate question forms (Questions/statements/open ended/close ended)  Make items clear (unambiguous) E.g. What do you think of the infrastructural plan of AACA? Which plan? be specific.  Avoid double-barreled questions E.g. What do you think about the LRT system and its implementation in Addis Ababa? Separate the 2 questions 3. Questionnaires … Cont’d  Respondents must be competent to answer  Questions should be relevant to the subject matter  Willing to answer  Short items are best  Avoid negative items E.g. Don’t ask “Should not” rather ask “should…”  3. Questionnaires … Cont’d  Avoid biased items and terms  People might agree with influential personalities (Mayor, Prime Minister, etc.) and tend to disagree with less popular personalities (ONLF, OLF, Al Qaeda, etc.) in questionnaires  Hence avoid questions like “do you agree with PM, Mayor, OLF, etc.” rather ask “What is your opinion….”  Close-ended items need to be exhaustive E.g. How old are you? A. less than 15 B. 15-64 C. 65 and above  Avoid value judgment words in the item E.g. Do you support the failed transport policy of Addis Ababa 3. Questionnaires … Cont’d  Questionnaire Should be spread out and uncluttered  Boxes adequately spaced apart  Contingency questions should be specified Questions intended for only some respondents, determined by their responses to some other question (For eg. If yes.., If no,..)  Matrix Questions items should be constructed properly  Questions that have the same set of answer categories (eg. likert response categories) 3. Questionnaires … Cont’d  Ordering items in a questionnaire (The appearance of one question can affect the answers given to later ones)  Present uni-polar or one-directional responses A preamble detailing purpose of the study. (First show the survey in hand is a worthy one)  General instruction detailing how to answer the questions  Short introduction for sub-sections; (e.g. socio-demographic, community problem section, etc.)  Pre-testing the questionnaire 4. Focus Groups Discussion … Cont’d  May be called discussion groups or group interviews  Is a method in which a number of people are brought together and discuss on certain issue  Involving 6 to 12 people plus a moderator and sometimes an assistant to take note;  More than 12 people will be difficult to manage  Less than 6 people will be dominated by loudmouths  8 is an ideal size  4. Focus Groups Discussion … Cont’d To gain insight into the dynamic relationships of attitudes, opinions, motivations, concerns, and problems related to human activity  Qualitative research  Helpful in answering questions of how and why  Need to be made up of homogenous people (age, gender, place of residence, etc.); to  Share similar knowledge  Control the validity of information  4. Focus Groups Discussion … Cont’d  Each participant may comment, ask questions of other participants, or respond to comments by others, including the moderator  Interaction among the respondents is encouraged to stimulate in- depth discussion of various topics.  Efficient to collect in-depth information from more people 4. Focus Groups Discussion … Cont’d Points to Consider on FGD:  Help participants to relax  Introduce the purpose, confidentiality & anonymity  Negotiate the length of the FGD & ask participants to respect it  Schedule convenient for the participants.  The moderator should explain that their opinions on various subjects are important  Aware that the task is to learn, not to present a point of view.  Participants should feel that they are talking with each other in a natural way.  3. Focus Groups Discussion … Cont’d  Some people might approach you after the discussion to give you an information that they were not comfortable sharing in the FGD, take a note of that Wrapping up:  Thank participants  Exchange contact address with participants  Promise and do give a copy of your report or policy brief 4. Focus Groups Discussion … Cont’d Asking questions:  Start with general and easy questions  Then move to more personal and sensitive questions  Keep an eye contact  Make sure that no one dominates  You can use list of questions or topics  However, probing the response of participants is important  Control digression & break-away conversation  4. Focus Groups Discussion … Cont’d Advantages and Disadvantages of FGD Advantages  Can receive a wide range of responses during one meeting  Participants can ask questions of each other, lessoning impact of researcher bias.  Helps people to remember issues they might otherwise have forgotten.  Helps participants to overcome inhibitions, especially if they know other people in the group.  The group effect is a useful resource in data analysis.  Participant interaction is useful to analyze  4. Focus Groups Discussion … Cont’d Disadvantages  Some people may be uncomfortable in a group setting & nervous about speaking in front of others.  Not everyone may contribute.  Other people may contaminate an individual’s views.  Some researchers may find it difficult or intimidating to moderate a focus group.  Venues and equipment can be expensive.  Difficult to extract individual views during the analysis. 5. Secondary Documents E.H Research Methods & Techniques 11/23/24 65 in Urban Development  5. Secondary Documents … Cont’d  The systematic use of published and unpublished materials for investigation  It is most widely used method There are three types of documentary research: A. Generation of information from previous writers in the field in question. E.g. term-papers B. Use of Archival Sources- organizational records (archives) E.g. letters. Minutes, etc. C. Reanalysis of data sets- E.g. reanalyzing the census data set, etc.  5. Secondary Documents … Cont’d Issues to be considered in documentary research:  Reliability of data-who, how, why collected Suitability of the data Adequacy of the data-in terms of accuracy and sufficiency Advantages of Documentary research  Easy to do  To triangulate the findings and put data into a larger context. Disadvantages of Documentary research Accuracy of the information is always questionable particularly in using newspapers & magazines as a source  Official statistics are not always exhaustive.  5. Secondary Documents … Cont’d  A researcher can face several problems when seeking previously recorded data. The main of these are :  Some may be costly to acquire and may be difficult to access.  Authenticating the sources  Assessing credibility  Gauging how representative they are  Selecting methods to interpret them  5. Secondary Documents … Cont’d Here are some examples of documentary data that come from a wide range of sources: Personal documents Oral histories Commentaries Diaries Letters Autobiographies Official published documents State documents and records Official statistics Commercial or organizational documents Mass media outputs Newspapers and journals Maps Drawings, comics and photographs  5. Secondary Documents … Cont’d Examples of documentary data … Cont’d  Fiction  Non-fiction  Academic output  Journal articles and conference papers  Lecture notes  Critiques  Research reports  Textbooks  Artistic output  Theatrical productions – plays, opera, musicals  Artistic critiques  Programmes, playbills, notes and other ephemera  Virtual outputs  Web pages  Databases  Sources of these data can be: libraries, museums and other archives commercial and professional bodies Thank You