Population and Development Notes PDF

Lecture 1 Introduction dinsdag 12 november 2024 14:56 Test - Lectures and literature (2 articles + book) - 3 essay questions - Application of knowledge The interlinkages between population and development What is Population The aggregate of people - Size - Structures of age and sex...

Lecture 1 Introduction dinsdag 12 november 2024 14:56 Test - Lectures and literature (2 articles + book) - 3 essay questions - Application of knowledge The interlinkages between population and development What is Population The aggregate of people - Size - Structures of age and sex - Geographical distribution - It skills and knowledge base Major concepts of population change: - Natural growth/decline (fertility and mortality) - Migration (internal, international) What is development 'Human development is about people. It is about expanding people's real choices and the substantive freedoms - the capabilities - that enable them to lead lives that thye value. Choice and freedom in human development mean something more than the absence of constraints. People whose lives are blighted by poverty, ill-health or iliteracy are not in any meaningful sense free to lead the lives that they value. Neither are people who are denied the civil and political rights they need to influence decisions that affect their lives Per capita GNP (the world bank) vs humand development index (UNDP) Economic, social and cultural change Sen's capability approach Moving away from traditional views on development Look at inequalities of freedom and choice - But: what is real freedom? What is real choice? - And: aer freedom and choice Western or universal values? How do population and development interlink? Population only one of a range of possible variables that affect and are affected by development Fundraising campaign First video more personal and hopeful, someone from the community In second video people from the community aren't involved, it just shows them/images, someone from a western country is talking about those people and raising money for it --> stereotypical Fundraising campaign Rusty radiotor awards - the rusty radiator award goes to the fundraising video with the worst use of stereotypes. This kind of portrayal is not only unfair to the persons portrayed in the campaign, but also hinders long-term development and the fight against poverty Golden Radiator Awards - The golden radiator award goes to the fundraising video using creativity and creating engagement. This kind of charity campaign is stepping outside of the common way with using stereotypes Reflecting on our perspectives Stereotypes Streotypes frequently used in fundraising campaigns Population and Development Pagina 1  Streotypes frequently used in fundraising campaigns We need to create engagement built on knowledge, not stereotypes. Why? - Radi-Aid Give voice to people Setting th scene: Reflexivity Background - Why are you interested in this topic/course Researcher - Power relations between you and your research participants Paradigms - Postcolonialism - Postcolonialismn feminism: e,g reproductive justice The white Savoir Complex - Barbie Savior Link to future work in research, policy and practice Develop a critical perspective towards, and overview of, population development - Subjectivity, positionality - Understand 'hidden agendas' behing policy and practice - Identify future topics based on theories and projections, e.g. ageing Prepares you for jobs as: - Practitioner, policy maker and/or (applied) researcher working with - (International) non-governmental ogranisations (NGOs), governments, research institues or as independent consultant Population and Development Pagina 2 Lecture 2 Population Policies and Human rights woensdag 20 november 2024 09:25 Population Policies and Planning > In which respects and to what extent can there be population planning to achieve desired objectives of population, size, growth, distribution, structure of population quality? > National targets and priorities and underlying assumptions Population structures (including ageing) Levels of growth Fertility Mortality, including HIV and AIDS, and abortion Internal and international migration Human resource development: education, knowledge and health > Stimulus to formulate population policies: un Population Conferences > Malthusian assumptions: Reduce population growth via family planning policies Can reduce short-term expenditures on schooling and health care > Population policies: State driven ○ Or via NGOs Market driven ○ Via school system or taxation system Culture driven ○ Pronatalist societies; after independence (political reasoning) ○ Lifestyle choices, assured survival of infants ○ Son preference; astrology (e.g. illegal to determine sex of foetus in India) > Policies in education Direct effect: increase quality of the human resource Indirect effect: lower fertility due to higher education women > Age at marriage Formal legislation minimum age at marriage > Contraception Most important proximate determinant of fertility worldwide Making it available Population and Development > Linking population and development Millennium Development Goals (2000-2015) Gender inequality Money allocated to this (political) Macro vs micro perspectives > Macro perspectives Malthus: population growth and food production Rationale for population policies ○ Bringing about quantitative changes in the membership of the territorially circumscribed population under the government’s jurisdiction ○ Justification: individual fertility can impose burdens on other members of the society > Traditional perspective Populaion planning = family planning and fertility reduction Population and Development Pagina 3  Populaion planning = family planning and fertility reduction How are targets to be achieved? → top-dow (e.g one child policy China) or bottom up? International Population Conferences > Have evolved through overlapping stages > Rome and Belgrade: the participants were invited on the basis of their expertise > 1974: the UN initiated the shift form expert meeting towards i ntergovernmental gather Became more messy and political > Conferences are part of broader political ideological and social processes Rome 1954 and Belgrade 1965 > Un in cooperation with international union of Scientific study of population (IUSSP) > Objective: To bring together experts for a scientific discussion on problems relating to population International population Conferences Caïro 1994 > International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) Population is not about numbers, but about people > Programme of Action 20 year plan Agreed on by 179 countries ICPD Program of Action > E.g., Principle 8: - All couples and individuals have the basic right to decide freely and responsibly the number and spacing of their children and to have the information, education and means to do so SRHR > Assumption: informed decision-making based on human rights perspective will automatically lead to lower fertility > Individual level: sexual and reproductive health and rights (investing in people), buttom up > Sexual and reproductive health and rights: Sexual health Sexual rights Reproductive health Reproductive rights Human Rights > SRHR are basic human rights Set of freedoms and entitlements for every human being that are legally guaranteed by human rights law > Human rights are: Universal and inalienable Interdependent and indivisible (package of economic, civil, political and cultural rights) Equal and non-discriminatory (look out for vulnerable and marginalised groups) > Human rights: Both rights and obligations ○ Rights-holders ○ Duty-bearers: governments should respect, protect and fulfil human rights ○ Ensuring accountability > Paradigm shift from needs-based to rights-based > Human rights are protected in a series of conventions, treaties and protocols that are binding under international Population and Development Pagina 4 > Human rights are protected in a series of conventions, treaties and protocols that are binding under international law SRHR > Examples of SRHR (IPPF charter) Everyone has the right to freely enjoy and control their sexual and reproductive life, having due regard to the rights of others No one should be discriminated against in their sexual and reproductive lives, and should not be denied health care and services Everyone has the right to equal access to education and information to ensure their health and well-being India > Women could win a car if they got sterilised Not equal Beijing 1995 > 4th world congress on women 1995 > Specification of Cairo commitment regarding: empowerment of women, elimination of all kinds of violence against women, right to control their own fertility > MDG 3: Gender equality 1994+10?? > No population conference in 2004 > Because: Fear of Bush administration to withdraw U.S. funding for UNFPA I.e. reproductive health activities, including abortion ICPD30 > The 30-year review (ICPD30) process is conducted through mutiple actors, events, dialoguses and platforms, engaging a wide and diverse array of stakeholders, beyond the formal intergovernmental processes > Global dialogues: A new generation vision for the ICPD Demographic Diversity and Sustainable development Technological change and the ICPD Agenda (AI; misinformation) Kijk powerpoint Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for sustainable development > Post2015.org – what came after the MDGs and 20 year Program of Action Cairo 1994? > Sustainable Development Goals A post-2015 framework aimed at ‘ending poverty and supporting the building blocks of sustainable prosperity’ Public debate involving civil society Population and Development Pagina 5 Goal 3 Ensure healthy lives and promote wellbeing for all at all ages > 3.1 By 2030 reduce the global maternal mortality ratio to less than 70 per 100,000 live births > 3.3 By 2030 end the epidemics of AIDS > 3.7 By 2030 ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health care services, including for family planning, information and education, and the integration of reproductive health into national strategies and programmes > 3.8 Achieve universal health coverage (UHC) Goal 5 Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls > 5.2 Eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls in public and private spheres, including trafficking and sexual and other types of exploitation > 5.3 Eliminate all harmful practices, such as child, early and forced marriage and female genital mutilations > 5.6 Ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health and reproductive rights as agreed in accordance with the Programme of Action of the ICPD and the Beijing Platform for Action and the outcome documents of their review conferences Process post-2015 > 169 targets > Negotiations: monthly, starting January 2015 E.g. about indicators and financing Important because it drives the allocation of global financial and human resource, and helps direct nations’ and donors’ policy priorities between now and 2030 > New sustainable development goals were agreed on: At 70th Session of the UN General Assembly (UNGA 70), September 2015 Adopted by 193 UN members - Important to keep governments accountable Unintended effects of population policies One child policy China leading to forced abortions and sex ratio imbalances Abortion ban leading to maternal death Nicargua Macro vs micro perspectives > international shift to: Micro perspectives, bottom up Individual freedom and choice > But whose rights count? Abortion Surrogacy Children being born to HIV positive parents (namibia: forced sterilisation) Covid-19 vaccinations and 2G > And how do individual rights fit into communal perspectives? Consequences of international policy influencing at the micro level > Anti-homosexuality bill in Uganda U.S. missionaries (protecting African values and traditions) Donor countries, e.g. Canada, UK, Denmark (threat: stop aid if bill is passed) Global Gag Rule > The global gag rule is a U.S. health policy that prohibited funding to foreign aid organisations that provide abortion services. The gag rule was first imposed by the Reagan administration in 1984 Trump’s global gag rule is a death sentence for some Malawi Women Project 2025 > Reinstating the global gag rule, which would prevent non-US NGOs from receiving US government global health assistance if they used their own, non-US funds to provide abortion services, information, counselling, referrals or Population and Development Pagina 6 assistance if they used their own, non-US funds to provide abortion services, information, counselling, referrals or advocacy > Restricting—and ultimately eliminating—access to medication abortion > Restricting the use of federal funds for abortion care and coverage > Forcing providers to risk criminal charges if they perform potentially life saving abortion care > Across the government, deleting all terms related to gender, gender equality, reproductive health, reproductive rights, abortion, sexual orientation and gender identity from all legislation, federal rules, agency regulations, contracts, agency websites and grants Human right perspective → view people as right holders and what is the government doing to ensure this (exam) Population and Development Pagina 7 Lecture 3 Perspectives II: China from a demographic perspective woensdag 20 november 2024 09:40 Family planning policies, demographic dvidend and ageing How do population and development interlink? Plaatje Demographic transition model Assumption --> every counrty will go to these transitions Description of the past (Western Europe) Used by UN to make population projections, assumptions Histrotrical experience of natural population change - Fertility and mortality Link between development and mortality, and between mortality and fertility Descriptive, emperical generalisation Assumption: - There is a universal global model of population change that is driven by developent - Fertility decline is lagged response to mortality decline - Populations will spontaneously adjust their fertility to achieve a desired level of growth Demographic transitions Demographic transition theory and - model - Second demographic transition Mobility transition Urban transition Epidemiological transition The global nutrition transition In all theories development has an influence on them, changes in development High equilibrium Fluctuations in harvests, epidemics, diseases - Black death Life expectancy at birth 30-35 years TFR of five children per women Controversy - Was equilibrium largely coincidental or was there a deliberate adjustment of fertility to match mortality (social and cultural instiutions) - Probably: higher desired fertility than achieved through environmental constraints Rising rate of growth First signs: - Western Europe, 18th century Growing economic development Population and Development Pagina 8  Growing economic development Life expectancy: about 55 years Fertility: - Marriage rates rose - Mean age at marriage fell Mortality: - More varied and assured food supply ○ Agricultural revolution - Innovations in technology; better health care ○ Infant and childhood mortality (vaccinations, midwifery) ○ Cholera - John Snow Falling rate of growth From 1870s in England fertility began to fall - Spontaneous (natural contraceptive methods) - Causes? ○ Urbanisation --> small houses ○ Schooling requirements ○ Repsonse to reduced mortality (infant and child survival) ○ 1930s: economic depression Low level equilibrium Medical improvements Changing lifestyles - Smoking - Short term fluctuations in fertility - --> Individual/couple's choice - ---> Economic and cultural conditions Second demographic transition Universal contraception and childbearing is a matter of deliberate and positive choice in family formation, rather than one of control through biolofy and cultural norms within formal marriage Propositions: - There is no longer a necessary relationship between fertility and mortality - Fertility declines are seen more in responses to larger economic and cultural forces than being.. Universality of second demographic transition difficult to justify - Western Europe, Latin America and East Asia vs India, Africa, and the middle east - Low fertility not necessarily goal of governments and individuals/communities Overview of world population Demographic transition model Controversies: Rleationship between fertlity and mortality: - Not spontaneous but cultural and economic - Greater choice makes link weaker - Systematic link between mortality or fertlity decline The extent to which these two have been affected by development How does development affect population change and will the south replicate europe's and north-americas styles and patterns of development? Four types of transition in sub-Saharan Africa Population and Development Pagina 9  Famine Mao Zedong People republic of China (PRC) - A single-party state controlled by the communist party of Chinae (CPC) - 1949-1976 Great leap forward - Rapid economic transformation from Agriculture to industry - Famine 1958-1962 Increased life expectancy - Improved education, health care and women's status Many baby boomers --> many children Recuced fertility Fundamental changes in socio-economic structure since 1950 From early 1970s, government-sponsored family planning programme Urban transition - Differences in urban and rural TFR.. Population and Development Pagina 10 Age-dependency Exact age - Chronological age vs attributes or life events Demographic dependency - Economically active population (15-64 years) and dependent population of your (0-14 years) and old (65+ years) Dependency ratio Culture bound: - Compulsory retirement - Schooling ○ Children productive or dependent - Urbanisation - Family or communal labour vs formal wage employment ○ Child protection legislation More appropriate: vulnerability, considering range of problems faced by the young and the elderly ○ About individual productive capacity Population dividend Plaatje Sweet spot --> large group of people are working and not many old and young people, so money can go to other investements Asian tigers Population dividend When fertility decline begins, proportion economically active age groups will rise - Short therm phenomenon Demographic conditionality - The transfer of resources to the productive sector: - -->Reduced public expenditures on schooling and health care Population and Development Pagina 11  - -->Reduced public expenditures on schooling and health care - -->Job creation, political stability, better schooling - Provides boost to the economic production - --> east asian 'miracle' from 1960s; Asian tigers - --> family planning programmes Asian tigers Hong Kong, Singapore, South korea and Taiwan Vigorous economic growth and welfare improvement - Industrialisation and urbanisation - (non-coercive) family limitation policies - Availability of contraception Before the one-child policy fertility already went down, but it was still relatively high, so their population was still growing Population dividend is sub-saharan Africa? Continued need for large education and health services (still low quality) - Economic problems - HIV and AIDS affects educated, skilled workers Youth buldge - No jobs may create further economic and political problems, e.g Egypth, Malawi - Burden rather than benefit Many places still low density One-Child policy China China's population and family planning law Since 1979 - Exceptions, e.g. rural areas if first child is a girl, ethnic minorty areas, urban couples without siblings High levels of sterilisations of women after first birth Easy acess to abortion of second pregnancy - Coercion ○ Economic, social, and psychological tools ○ Taken by force to a government birth control clinic Very ''successful'' policy - At expense of human rights and womens choice - Conflicting with international agreements - Sex ration imbalances, effects on marriage, women trafficking,etc. - Below-replacement level: rapdid ageing Population and Development Pagina 12  - Below-replacement level: rapdid ageing Two-child policy Since 2015, China's government allows all couples to have a second child - Three since 2021 Smaller increase in birth than expected - One is enough Lower number of women of child-bearing age Continuous agening society The marriage squeeze Ageing and health care High welfare burden No systematic old age support for the rural elderly - Women: no formal employment in earlier years Every person is right holder to healthcare, chinees government should provide this to everyone Global population futures Formal popualtion projections: - Systematic estimations (not predictions) based on a set of assumptions derived from past experience of population and trends and likely futures - Unpreditcable events: war, pandemics, natural events - Assumptions that long-term equilibrium will be achieved and that population change is development driven - Pronalalist cultures; fertility individual choice? Critical: not population size but poplaution/resource balance: - Sustainable development goals: - Individual well-being is more important than consumption (human rights, inequalities --> create oppertunities and contexts) Population and Development Pagina 13 Lecture 4 Perspective III: sen's capability approach donderdag 21 november 2024 12:57 Child development and nutrition Approaches to global development Development as economic growth Development as modernisation - Westernisation Development as socio-economic transformatiom - neo-liberalsim Development as redistributive justice - inequality Principles of justice - income allocation 1. Income is allocated to maximise the profit of the society as a whole (utilitarianism) 2. Income allocation is only just if income of the poor is secured (justice as fairness - rawls) 3. If you achieve twice as much as someone else, it is only fair that your income is twice as much as well (equity) 4. Any income is just, as long as it is obtained honestly, in other words as long as others are prepared to pay for it (procedural justice) 5. Everybody should have an income that meets his or her needs (need) 6. Incomes are only just if everybody earns the same (egalitrarian) Alternative approach to social justice and development Emphasis on capabilities to live a minimally acceptable life instead of income Development as capability expansio (Sen, 2003) Its not about the outcome, its about peoples oppertunities or capabilities, Amartya Sen Nobel prize in Economic Science in 1998 for his contributions to welfare economics and social choice theory and for his interest in the problems of society's poorest members Sen's capability approach - development indicators Amartya Sen (1993-) - Economic growth as a mono-dimensional indicator for development was replaced by a set of indicators for development, directed towards freedom to achieve what people defined as valuable aspirations and functionings in their context - Implemented by UNDP (multi-dimensional Human development Index) and used for assessment and comparison of development between countries Sen's capabilities approach The CA places individuals, their values, their real oppertunities to be and do, somebasic things in a good life, and their freedom of choice in the spotlight as well as envisions well-being as something that is intrinsically multi-dimensional The elements of the capability approach Sen's capability approach Capabilities: what is this person able to do and to be? (Valuable doings and beings) Functionings: the realisation of capabilities into end achievements (the values beings and doings) Agency: the ability to pursue goals that one values and has reason to value Individual endowments: the amount (and quality) of resourses (things) available to the individuals Conversion factors: factors affecting how individuals can convert their endowments into capabilities Capabilities Wat is this person able to do and to be (valuable doings and beings) Made up of by the combined interaction of a person's internal and external factors: - Internal endowments such as biology, knowledge and skills - As well as the external environments including social, material and environmental factors Related to human well-being and hence equality and social justice Functionings Achieved aspirations and doings; › What people value to achieve: in translation from capabilities to functionings there is freedom/ agency/ choice; Examples: - Achieved measures of wellbeing/ deprivation. Looking beyond income poverty - source of inequality Personal heterogenity (for example, susceptibility to diseases) Environmental differences (for example, living in an area where earth quales and floods are common) Social climate (for example, prevalance of criminality) Cultural differences (gender, religion, norms, values) Differences in normal consumption patterns Implementation of Sen's theory Human development reports - Foreword by Amartya Sen: rather than concentrating on only a few traditional indicators of economic progress (such as gross national product per capita), “human development” accounting proposed a systematic examination of a wealth of information about how human beings in each society live and what substantive freedoms they enjoy. Population and Development Pagina 14 Human Development Index Based on capabilities approach Main outcomes as indicators, not underlying factors Comparing multidimensional and income poverty Different rankings Reflect on the indicators that you are using in your assesment of development New indices Inequality adjusted HDI Gender Inequality Index Gender Empowerment Measure Multidimensional poverty index GINI coefficient for measuring inequality Different indicators give different answers Having the freedom to choose is a capability How to use the CA Practical uses: 1. The assesment of individual well-being 2. The evalutation and assessment of social arragements 3. The design of policies and actions for social change in society Measure of quality of life Growht monitoring The process of following the growth rate of a child in comparison to a standard by periodic anthropometric measures in order to assess the growth adequacy and identify faltering at early stages (WHO/UNICEF) UNICEF made a direct link to health promotion (also Ashworth et al. 2008) – GOBI (Growth Monitoring, Oral Rehydration, Breastfeeding & Immunisation) - GMP. Why growht monitoring? Reduce child morbidity and mortality - In 2021, 4.7 million children < 5 y died globally; - Malnutrition is estimated to play a role in around half of these children --> 2.4 million children; - Large disparities exist between and within countries. Indicators for child growth Weight-for-height: wasting also overweight; Height-for-age: stunting; Weight-for-age: underweight; BMI = weight (kg)/ height (m)2. Critique: current indicators Include only medical parameters; Not sensitive to context: - Derived from high SES; - Ill-adjusted to children growing up in othercircumstances. Ignore relevant theories relating to health andnutrition from other disciplines; Consequences of universal indicators Advice given to mothers doesnot match withcircumstances in which children live; Interventions (eg. overweight) not embedded into local reality; Comparison in nutritional status betweencountries without taking into account differences in context. Why a different approach to child growth Alternative approach to child growth Multi-dimensional definition of growth: not merely focus on anthropometry; Appreciate importance of context; Identify children that are “left behind” in the development process; Relevant to achieving SDG targets and reduce inequalities. Population and Development Pagina 15 Relevant to achieving SDG targets and reduce inequalities. Population and Development Pagina 16 Population and Development Pagina 17 Lecture 5 Environmental impacts on food systems vrijdag 13 december 2024 16:58 Lecture 5 Environmental impacts on the food system Website: our world in data What are the environmental impacts of food and agriculture? > Food 26% of global emission > 50% of land use is used for agriculture > 70% of freshwater use is used for agriculture > Large pollution of water by agriculture > Large livestock Food consumption and production causes is the problem in multiple factors of climate change How did we get here > Food production is a big problem Ecological footprint Food chain Consumption patterns Look at complete consumption is better than looking at per kg or liter, because of somethings you don’t consume as much as the other Environmental effects and food > Different consumption patterns, different amount of emission Plaatje Why is the environmental impact of animal products higher? > the need feed, feed conversion is 2-10. (kg of feed to produce 1 kg of meat) So 2-10 times more land, water, nitrogen for a kg of product > Ruminants (cows, sheep) produce methane Factors: water, land use, energy/climate, eutrophication Consumption vs land use Staple food diets have far lower environmental impacts than luxurious diets with meat, beverages, fats etc. Consumption patterns change… Consumption patterns are not stable The present food system has a large environmental impact What does this mean on a global scale for future Quantification of the demands 2 drivers > population growth (more people, need more food) > change to more luxurious diets on a global scale > What is the overall effect? Driver for food: population Conclusions > Population growth declines with increasing development > At GDP 2000 $ per person population growth is 1% > Population growth takes place in developing countries (3 billion people) > Demographic transition Driver for food: consumption > When countries get richer, diets change to: More meat More vegetables More beverages > Change from carbohydrates to fats > Largest changes in consumption patterns take place between 2000 and 10000 $/per person > Nutrition transition How big is the effect? > Luxurious diets have more effect on the environment than staple foods On a global scale changes in the consumption patterns are becoming more important than the number of people In 2050 the environmental impacts of food will double Population and Development Pagina 18 In 2050 the environmental impacts of food will double Less meat means less environmental pressure Vegetarian is becoming more usual > Restaurants > Canteens > Stores > Policy > Receipts Example 2 menus > For this vegetarian meal more water, energy and land is used > Tese results can be found for many vegetarian diets > Vegetarian is not an easy to go solution > luxurious vs staple food Replacing meat by cheese and nuts does not make sense Eating with low environmental pressure > Less meat, diary and eggs > No nuts > No vegetables from the greenhouse > No flown-in vegetables > In october-may: cabbage, chicory, onions, carrot, frozen vegetables or tinned > Restrict coffee, tea, beer, wine > No frying Impact vegetarian lifestyle on total greenhouse gas emissions Replacing all meat by vegetarian alternatives Saving 300 kg co2 per year > Eating meat and holidays by car in France is better than being vegan and flying to Thailand Changes of the consumption pattern are no solution to the environmental issues in the Netherlands Climate change is not the only problem to meat production Food exported, pollution stays here Conclusion > The very high density of livestock fed with imported livestock feed leads to extreme high nitrogen emissions > As the animals products are exported a change in consumption pattern of the Dutch population is not going to solve this Population and Development Pagina 19 Lecture 6 Dutch global health hub vrijdag 13 december 2024 17:01 Dutch global health strategy 2023-2030 Disinformation and misinformation Dutch added-value > Connector > Advocate, outspoken > innovator Global health strategy Strengthening the global health architecture and national health systems ○ International coherence and multilateral cooperation ○ Improved access to primary healthcare and sexual and reproductive health and rights (SRHR) Improving international pandemic preparedness and minimising cross-border health threats ○ Global access to medicines and health products ○ Strengthened international action on antimicrobial resistance and zoonotic diseases policy Addressing the impact of climate change on public health, and vice versa ○ Making healthcare more sustainable and climate resilient ○ International action on climate, water and food Many people died of other disease during covid, because of the intense focus The dutch global health hub: uniting for global health > The hub unites diverse actors and sectors: Knowledge institutes Platforms Academics Youth and organisations NGOs Top sectors Think tanks > Primary goal Create a collaborative platform for knowledge exchange and inspiration Strengthen each other in addressing global health challenges > Benefit of the Network Allow (global) health actors in the Netherlands to join forces Shape and implement the global health strategy in a demand driven and innovative Population and Development Pagina 20  Shape and implement the global health strategy in a demand driven and innovative way NGOs go where the money is → focus on political policies that are accurate Communities of Practice (CoPs) > Three communities of Practice in the global health hub align with strategy priorities > Cops independently steer content and activities within strategy framework > Cops strive for innovative, integrated, demand-driven solutions for global health challenges > The network enables Dutch health actors to unite and contribute to strategy implementation Where are we now? > New national and international political reality > Pressure on budgets > More attention for role of private sector and innovation > Preparing for future health threats - reflect on the past > lessons learnt from covid-19: Have a crisis response plan ready with high level political support Health systems strengthening instead of focus on one disease Multilateral more effective than bilateral Importance of clear and trustworthy public communication Community engagement Humanitarian response Population and Development Pagina 21 Lecture 7 Migration, Development, and changing reproductive behaviour within the Context of Environmental change vrijdag 13 december 2024 17:05 Global migration and population trends > 2020 = 281 million international migrants (3.6% of world population) > 184 million migrations globally (2.3% of of world population) > 37 million of them are refugees > Remittances (700 billion dollars in international remittances, 2020) > global population: 2024: 8.2 billion people (global fertility rate - 2,25 live birth per woman - down from 3.31 birth in 1990) Around 10.3 billion people expected in future (by mid-2080s at fertility rate of 1.9) Africa: projected to fall below the replacement fertility rate(4.6 to 2.1 births per woman) by 2100 Free food and books were incentives to get people to go to school Education, access to contraception Economic dividend (large working group (with jobs available), low dependent group → economic development) > Africa: expected to have strong population growth for the rest of the century 1.5 billion people (2024) (to 2.5 billion by 2050) … SSA (expected to triple by 2100) United States and Canada, and Australia and New Zealand also projected to grow in the century but at slower rates than Africa > Asia and the pacific: population expected to increase from 4,7 billion in 2023 (60% of the world’s population) to 5,2 billion in 2055, then start to decline > Europe and Latin America: expected to have declining population by 2100 Europe: population = 742 million (2023) LAC: 665 million (2023) - expected to pass Europe by 2037 before parking at 768 million by 2058 Drivers of Global Population Change > Economic development: Relative increase in per capita income Improvements in healthcare and medicine ○ Lower mortality rate (lesser children) > Rapid Urbanisation 2025: Asia (almost 51.1% urbana - 66.2: 2050) vs Africa - mostly rural (43.5% - 2050: 58.9% living in urban areas) Urbanisation ○ Accompanied by smaller households ○ New lifestyle - demands ○ New consumption habits > Population ageing: world growing older Driven by increasing life expectancy Declining fertility rates Not peculiar developed countries - china home to 5th of world's urban population and large proportion of 65+ > Migration Globalisation (interconnected world, trade, transport, communication) Environmental change and population > Climate/Environmental change: migration (forced) Environmental refugees 143 million climate-related migrants by 2050 Conflicts Population and Development Pagina 22  Conflicts > Populations: dependent on Ecosystem for sustenance > Climate change effects: livelihoods, health and economies of most developing countries (rural people more vulnerable) Theories of population Growth and Development (resources) > Ecoscarcity and limits to growth: Malthusian Theory of population growth Limits to growth (club of Rome) > Ester Boserup Population growth: independent of food supply Population growth: intensification and technological innovation Power of human ingenuity will always outmatch that demand (people have the knowledge and technology to increase food supply) > Modernisation and Optimists: Emphasis on economic efficiency Modern economic techniques of management, exploitation and conservation Development can occur alongside environmental conversation through efficient techniques and right prices > Food distribution Population Growth and food security > World Food Summit: ‘’Food security exits when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for active and healthy life > Food dimensions: Availability: availability of sufficient quantity and quality of food Access: Access to adequate resources or incomes to be able to buy or exchange for sufficient food and nutritious food Utilisation: ability of individuals to make good use of the food to meet nutritional requirements through clean water, proper storage, processing, sanitation and health care to reach a state of nutritional well-being where all physiological needs are met Stability: where the household or individual has access and stable supply of adequate food at all times. Not threatened by economic or climate crisis (availability and access) > Population Growth: Increased demand for food/consumption Pressure on (arable) land/natural resources Land use change - agricultural intensification (land degradation) Inequality/poverty Climate change How do people respond to environmental change?: Theoretical perspectives > Sustainable livelihoods framework Agency > Multiphasic response Demographic adjustment: changes in nuptiality Economic adjustment: agricultural extensification/ intensification and migration to urban areas How do people/households in rural areas respond to climate/environmental change impact? > What are the implications for food security Example look powerpoint > Rainfall and climate change > Agriculture and climate change Unfavourable rainfall and seasonal dry spells interspersed with perennial flooding and destruction of crops and property. Declining soil fertility, erosion, rocky landscape and land scarcity in the face high population density affecting agricultural productivity Migration: (northeast Ghana) > Historical overview: Pre Colonial motivations:: trade in Salaga; Slavery, mov’t in search of food and fertile land & sale of people Population and Development Pagina 23 search of food and fertile land & sale of people > Colonial Influence: recruitment into RWAFF, labour (reserve) migration > North-south Migration in recent times also precipitated by Sociocultural factors >Climatic/Environmental Risks: Rainfall variability, environmental degradation, floods, declining fertility, limited land, overpopulation and failing agriculture Research question > Studies in northern Ghana: Effects of climatic and environmental change on agriculture, livelihoods and wellbeing of the people (Schraven, 2010; Armah et al., 2010). Outmigration : a livelihood strategy (Van der Geest, 2011; Rademacher- Schulz & Mahama, 2012) Effects of Climatic/Environmental Change & Migration on reproductive behaviour still remains patchy > How have rainfall variability and declining crop yields in tandem with population growth influenced migration and the changing reproductive behaviour being experienced in most parts of rural northern Ghana? This will likely provide explanation or fill the gap between the seemingly lack of correlation between fertility change and contraceptive usage in northern Ghana Highlight some of the responses people make to cope with constraints on their livelihoods Migration as a Response? > Migration to southern Ghana: work/jobs > Farming > new trend/wave (n/region): farming and harvesting Reproductive change? > Family planning acceptance rate low in Bongo District > Many women not using contraception > If contraceptive usage is not consistent with fertility decline, what explains this trend? “[…] More to the point, the rains are bad these days, the crops are not doing well, you work all day and you don’t get enough to eat and you are hungry lying there, will you be able to service a woman? So that is one factor that is making me not to get near my wife to be able to give birth to more children” […] If you don’t have food to feed your children, how do you give birth? There is no food. So there is no desire to give birth to more children and you cant feed and take care of them…Look at me, I’m still young to give birth. But I don’t want to give birth to children and suffer to feed them. If I had money and enough to feed I would have loved to give birth to more up to 5. My mum gave birth to 10 children. So I would have wished to give birth to more, but I can’t” Main takeaways > Migration: a livelihood/survival strategy A strategy to reduce the number of mouths on meagre crop yields. Remittances (cash/non-cash) to improve household welfare > Decline in number of births: a way to cope with failing agriculture in the face of climate change and economic hardship. Explanation to fertility decline in N/Ghana > Migration and fertility decline crucial to household welfare in N/Ghana Traditional knowledge and practices in tackling the effects of climate change and variablity (Gov't - civil society parternship)' Implications for reproductive justice? Population and Development Pagina 24 Rules UN Simulation Game donderdag 5 december 2024 12:57 Different roles Delegations Chairpersons Key conpets Dimplomacy Negotiation (balance your national inerest and reach a compromise) Resolutions (document with the solutions) Research and prep Understand the commitee's agenda. Know the main objectives Thoroughly research your country''s policies. Make use of official sources and fact check your information Carefully craft your Policiy statements and opening speeches Farmilirise yourself with MUN rules Have points ready for debates.... How to research your country Start with an overview of the country Understand you country's histroy and key policies on the topic Explore how the topic developed throughout the years in your country and how its particularly affected Find its allies and trade partners Research your country's.... Avaible documents --> brightspace Dont say I say we Rules of procedure Follow the RoPs and the instructions of the Chairs Multiple people from the same delegation can speak during one intervention Use formal language Raise placecards to speak and wait to be recognized Respect speaking time limits Observe decorum and professionalism Procedural vs substantive Procedural: votes on procedural matters, such as causes and motions Substansive: votes on substansive issues regarding content, such as draft resolutions and amendments Second vs objection Second: to show your support for a motion Objection: to show you are against a motion Part 1 - Opening - Opening speeches - situation in your country Part 2 - Debate - Problems in your country + solutions - Write resolution Part 3 - voting Population and Development Pagina 25 Part 3 - voting Roll call - Present - Present and voting Opening speeches - 90 secs - Establish your country's position, introduce the key points of focus for your delegation (policy/your solution) - Enagage en capture the council''s attention General speaker's list - General debate - 90 sec - Speeches - Give time back, time for questions or give time to another country Prepare topics of discussion Address a speech of another country Moderated caucus - General debate --> specific topic - Discuss a sub topic Prepare in advance topics you want to talk about Unmoderated caucus Negotiate and discuss alliances Motion to extend the previous caucus Cannot be longer than the original causus Motion to introduce a draft resolution Motion to introduce an Amendment - Changing the wording of a draft resolution, addressing a single clause in a single draft resolution - Delete, amend or add a clause Friendly or unfriendly amendment Motion to suspend the meeting Motion to close the debate Vote by roll call - In favor, against or abstain Motion to adjourn the meeting Writing a resolution Components - Preambulatory claueses: acknowledging the problem and past efforts Practice Stress Preambulatory clause Operative clause --> having to be one long sentence (dont have to say we or country, just list the solution) - Zin.. and instead: A... B.... Aim to be specific as possible Population and Development Pagina 26 Population and Development Pagina 27 Lecture 9 Demographic development and the demographic dividend in India vrijdag 13 december 2024 17:13 Lecture 9 Demographic development and the demographic dividend in India Why I am talking about India > India has become country with the largest population and the largest democracy in the World > Population has increased from ca. 346 millions in 1950 to 1.45 billions in 2023. Projected to increase to 1.6 billion in 2040 (UN World Population Prospects 2024). > At the same time, large changes in the population age structure (share of younger and older persons in the population) and persistent inequalities in health, education, income etc. A lecture about India - a difficult task > India enormously multifaceted country with wide ranging cultural, social and historic differences > Often seen as one country but consisting of 28 states and 8 union territories with population sizes larger than the majority of EU countries (e.g. Uttar Pradesh ca. 200 mil) > 30 different languages spoken by more than 1 mil persons and 122 languages spoken by more than 10.000 persons > Also large religious variety, 13% of Indians are Muslims -> India 3rd largest Muslim country in the world >Despite recent progress, high social stratification based on caste system (3.000 casts and 25.000 subcasts) and traditional norms mainly outside cities Data limitations > Information on India‘s demographic developments not always easy to obtain > Much information based on surveys (i.e. DHS) -> not always representative or no information for the entire population › No full civic registry (i.e. death, birth registers) > Mis Reports of basic information like age, cause of death (verbal autopsies), DOB etc. > Some information not collected/ not reported (political preferences) > Still, enough information to provide overview Demographic transition Model > Used to explain changes in population size and composition over time > Postulates common trends in population dynamics → often used to compare population developments according to stages > Not really a theory → centered on European/ Western Experience Demographic transition model > Stage 1: Pre-transition Characterised by high birth rates, and high fluctuating death rates Population growth was kept low by Malthusian ‘’preventative’’ (late age at marriage) and ‘’positive (famine, war, pestilence) checks > Stage 2: Early transition During the early stages of the transition, the death rate begins to fall Population and Development Pagina 28  During the early stages of the transition, the death rate begins to fall As birth rates remain high, the population starts to grow rapidly > Stage 3: Late transition Birth rates start to decline The rate of population growth decelerates > Stage 4: post-transition Post-transitional societies are characterized by low birth and low death rates Population growth is negligible, or even enters a decline Fertility in India Fertility and the first demographic transition > First demographic transition refers to declining birth and death rates experienced in Europe in the 19th century > Potential reasons for historical fertility decline Declining (child) mortality Increased family planning Increased contraceptive use Parental investment in children (quality-quantity trade off) Social insurance and old age support Child mortality in India > Going down Family planning and contraceptive use > Family planning major factor to reduce unwanted pregnancies and avoid maternal deaths > SDG 3.7.1 → universal access to family planning and modern contraceptive use > Still, larger share of families without access to contraceptives or information about family planning and contraceptive use Fertility and the Second demographic transition > Phenomenon: Change toward very low fertility (below replacement fertility) In western world since 1960s Increasing diversity of partnership and family types >Causes of these changes: shift in attitudes and norms in the direction of greater individuals freedom and self-actualization > In India the second demographic transition is not really seen Second demographic transition (SDT) > driven by different use of contraception > Shift from material to non-material needs and values > Stark contrasts between the two transitions with respect to partnerships and fertility trend s > Future implications: fertility postponement, childlessness, population ageing, more immigration (less social cohesion, challenges due to family instability) > No second fertility transition in India yet Mortality and morbidity in India > Mortality and morbidity measures or population health > Mortality = risk of death at population level > Morbidity = risk of ill-health at population level > Crude death rate in India has declined Life expectancy in India > Life expectancy at birth has increased Population and Development Pagina 29 > Life expectancy at birth has increased Mortality and morbidity Improvements > According to epidemiological transition model, countries pass through different phases in which health and life expectancy improve: > Historical changes develop countries → modernisation (public infrastructure, housing, nutrition) > Changes 20th century developing countries → medical improvements (medical treatments mostly against infectious diseases) > Changes 20th century low-mortality countries → socio-economic development and medical progress; lifestyle changes (improvements in treatability of chronic/ non- communicable diseases) Disease burden in India Double disease burden > Developing countries or countries with higher social inequalities may be in the middle of two transitions or phases at once > New set of health problems with remaining and consistent set of old health problems Still high infectious diseases, nutritional and maternal health burden and increasing burden of chronic diseases > Example India: society in economic transition, large social inequalities and health disparities the country → wealthier regions/ population subgroups vs poorer regions/ population subgroups Population increase and population composition Intermediary summary 1 > India has passed different stages of the demographic transition > Decreasing fertility -> below replacement level Potential reasons → see first fertility transition > Decreasing mortality/ improving life expectancy Continuous increases in average length of life for men and women Potential reasons → see epidemiological transition framework Still, large morbidity disparities → double disease burden Demographic Dividend > What is a demographic dividend? Can you think of factors to realize a demographic dividend? > Something that doesn’t necessarily have to happen Why are intergenerational transfers important? > Transfers are transactions of resources, conceptualised as gifts, exchange, etc. Population and Development Pagina 30 > Transfers are transactions of resources, conceptualised as gifts, exchange, etc. > Giving and receiving transfers is central component of human life course > Evolutionary rooted: can be found among animals, hunter-gatherer societies to modern societies (inclusive fitness theory) > Traditionally help to raise offspring and kinship but also to assist in adulthood and old age > Only more modern societies have developed public transfers systems The importance of transfers and resource distribution > Different types of transfers: financial resources, time (emotional/ instrumental support?), etc. > Different directions from young to old, old to young, middle aged to old and young, to oneself, etc. > Different transfers channels: public or private Private = family (parents, grandparents, wider kinship network) → family stress model Public = institutionalised statutory redistribution schemes (tax based, contribution based) → welfare state typology Transfers and the human life course In India not much public support, more private support Consumption and labour in India Dependency ratios in a global perspective Population and Development Pagina 31 Indian dependency ratios Facilitating framework > UN’s Doha Programme of Action for Least Developed Countries for the Decade 2022-2030 gives recommendations how to realise a demographic dividend: > Central aspects for investments and create policy environment for investments: Investments in child health (e.g. immunization, nutrition, child protection) Adolescent sexual and reproductive health (including family planning) System improvements in education (including access for women and marginalised groups) Favourable population structure Educational attainment and demographic dividend > Educated population (important for demographic dividend) Population Increase and population consumption Female autonomy - education Child health > Substantial reductions in infant and maternal mortality in last decades but still large determinant for unequal health Contraceptive use - female autonomy Population and Development Pagina 32 Contraceptive use - female autonomy > Female sterilization has been the predominant form of modern contraceptive use in the last decades > Proportions of sterilization were forced or women felt poorly informed about procedure and side effects > 4 million sterilizations only in 2014-15 (100.000 men) → 700 deaths due to poorly surgery between 2009-2012 Time magazine 1977 about forced sterilization Female employment - employment Intermediate summary 2 > Demographic dividends are windows of opportunity for economic development and increased redistribution (see intergenerational transfers) >India has entered window of opportunity but needs to address a number of facilitating factors-> child health, female empowerment > Substantial progress has been made in a number of domains but still work to be done to meet the SDG targets Summary lecture > India has become the most populous country in the World by undergoing different demographic transitions –> see demographic transition model > Further population growth expected due to increasing life expectancy but eventually stagnation and decline due to ongoing fertility decline > Demographic process result in window of opportunity to realize a demographic dividend (see last part) > This lecture is only a snapshot on the developments in India -> lecture series needed to go more in detail on this fascinating country Population and Development Pagina 33 Lecture 10 Cash: transfers in development and humanitarian assistance donderdag 12 december 2024 12:58 Social welfare emerged in Europe in the 16th century - Social security - Social assistance Quite extensive in the Global North, not so much in the Global South - but times are changing Cash transfers are direct, regular and predictable non-contributory payments that raise and smooth incomes with objectives of reducing poverty and vulnerability - Assumption: poor are responsible actors but lack capabilities - Often also secondary objectives such as ensuring food security, uptake of health services and/or participation in education - No money to buy fishing equitment Empower people Drivers of cash transfer expansion (1/2) Cash transfers are shaped by three sets of considerations - Technocratic considerations - Political considerations - Ideological considerations The global expansion of cash transfers - 1980s and 1990s - strong neoliberal focus on reducing role of the states (Washington consensus)/ incentives/ structural adjustment - East Asian crisis 1997 spurred more interest internationally in social protection - Cash transfers as a new intervention aimed at reducing the worst effects of poverty - Development revolution from the Global south - e.g. Brazil and Mexico as a way to address poverty The role of HIV/AIDS - Hiv/aids devestated thr working age population, especially in sub-Saharan Africa - E.g. in lesotho the focus on OVCs came from the EU and UNICEF and was based on the idea that it was so bloody necessary to do something for all these children to ensure that they had a reasonable posibility to get a life which was worthwhile living. Government would not have done it - Dependency rations continue to be very important in beneficiary selection Drivers of cash transfers (2/2) Cash transfers and the sustainable development goals - SDG 1, End poverty in all its forms everywhere includeds target 1.3 which is ''Implement nationally appropiate social protection systems and measures for all, including floors, and by 2030 achieve substantial coverage of the poort and the vulnerable - ILO recommendation 202 on Social protection floors - Substantial support needfed from the international community: technical and financial Human rights perspectives - ILO/UN is one of the main advocates - Article 22 of the UDHR states that each “member of society, has the right to social security and is entitled to realization, through national effort and international co-operation and in accordance with the organization and resources of each State, of the economic, social and cultural rights indispensable for his dignity and the free development of his personality” (UN, 1948, p. 87). - “Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and wellbeing of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control” (UN, 1948, p. 87). - Aid is about meeting rights, rather than charity - Some authors (Ferguson, 2015) go further arguing people are entitled to a share of collective wealth – especially when wealth is unrelated to effor So... Population and Development Pagina 34  So... - Cash transfers became increasingly popular since the turn of the century - Cash transfers provide dignity to beneficiaries - Expansion supported by multiple drivers - Cash transfers do require markets and supplies of goods and services and do not address structural causes Social cash transfers (1/3) - Types and geographic differences Aimed at smoothing and achieving development outcomes over a longer period of time In latin America financed from government resources, in sub-Saharan Africa by international donors, in Asia a mixture (generalised) Types of social cash transfers Conditional Cash tranfers - Latin America - Come with conditions - e.g. attending health or education services - Influenced by mentality of having to work for benefits/incentives - Similair to many European cash transfers Unconditional Cash transfers - sub-saharan Africa - No string attached - beneficiaries are best placed to decide how to use the cash - Strongly supported by organisation such as UNICEF and FCDO and tosome extent the World Bank when they are poverty targeted Rest of the world - mixture - Big differences in financial capacity of governments - Cash for work/ public works programmes very popular, e.g. in India, Nepal, Afghanistan - Donors still promote uncoditional cash tranfers Social cash tranfers (2/3) - Objectives Often multiple objectives are pursued - implicit acknowledgement that policy makers do not know best Achievment of outcomes is mixed and contingent on factors such as tranfers value, frequency, etc. Frequency important Poverty reduction - Direct impact on income and expenditure: purchasing goods and investing - If cash transfers are too small, they do not have a significant effect on reducing poverty at household or higher levels - what is the poverty gap Education - In general, positive impact on school attendance - Free primary education is rarely free - Impact on education outcomes less pronounced - Sometimes an explicit condition Health care - Positive impact on health outcomes - Strongly linked with food security - Cash increases demand for health services - Sometimes an explicit condition - A recent study from Malawi found that cash transfers “improve education, physical health, emotional wellbeing and mental health, and sexual and reproductive health” but that there is no impact on HIV risk (Lambon-Quayefio et al., 202 Social cash transfers (3/3) - objectives and constraints Food is often a primary need, and the main expenditure for most beneficiaries in both development and humanitarian settings - Currently 700-800 million people faced hunger – 9.2% of the world population - Undernourishment is linked to SDG target 2.1: “By 2030, end hunger and ensure access by all people, in particular the poor and people in vulnerable situations, including infants, to safe, nutritious and sufficient food all year round”. - Food aid can have 40% overhead, cash transfers 6-15% Quality of food is important – cash transfers no silver bullet - Impacts on food security vary (Hjelm, 2016) Transformative potential – some constraints 1. Different views limit scaling Population and Development Pagina 35  1. Different views limit scaling 2. Expansion depends on policy windows (shocks create a window of oppertunty) 3. Cash transfers only address demand side 1. How would cash transfers relate to your own interests? 2. Should most development aid come in the form of cash transfers? - Structural issues 3. Is it morally justified to impose conditions on cash transfer beneficiaries? Cash benchmark Humitarian cash transfers Implemented in very different - dynamics context - Can be small scale - e.g. localised floods (Cope with a disaster) - Can be very large - Syrian refugees in Turkey - Give cash before the disaster happens, so they can prepare Often no foundation to build on - No health/ education/ market infrastructure - Beneficiaries often lack documentation - No bank accounts or mobile phones - so how do you get the money to the people - Host populations can develop negatives attittues Extremely important during COVID-19 Beneficiary selection is complex and can lead to tension - no perfect method Beneficiary selection (1/2) - who gets what? Beneficiary selection can be incredibly complex and divisive We are all poor here Financial constraints mean difficult choices Information deficit Often involves a range of methods - Proxy means testing - complex and expensive/time consuming - Community-based targeting Beneficiary selection (2/2) - Stakeholders involved At the local level everyone has an interest - Local elites particularly influential when community based selection methods are usd - Frequently the case when there is no up-to-date information on pverty at household level Officials - Government or NGO officials often involved in conducting selection processes or conducting surveys for proxy means tests International actors - Prusue their institutional interest and will try and ensure targeting criteria in line with their manadate - Present themselves as objective and technocratic (which is only partly true) - Try to keep politicians out of the process Politicians - At all levels from local to national present themselves as knowing the community best - Represent the people - Stakeholders don't want political influence Power relations between stakeholders (1/3) We can understand design and implementation through power: financial, technical and political power Cash transfers are a resource - so stakeholders compete and have vested interests Stakeholders dynamics shape programme design and implemtations Examples from Lesotho: a child grants programme and old age pension CGP was initiated by the EU in response to HIV/AIDS; UNICEF brought in to run the programme Government lukewarm, Minister of Finance saying government would never do it Population and Development Pagina 36  Government lukewarm, Minister of Finance saying government would never do it Government prefers OAP – political tool and increases faster than inflation World Bank strongly opposes OAP – wants resources to go to CGP which is poverty targeted Government refuses – possible because it is tax funded EU wants to keep Word Bank ‘out’ of the CGP due to fears World Bank will claim credit Power relations between stakeholders (2/3) Examples from Malawi: Social Cash Transfer Programme and Humanitarian Cash Transfer UNICEF dominated SCTP from the start Mobilises resources, provides technical support, brings stakeholders together Four different donors (EU, World Bank, Germany, Ireland). Government funds 1 district Each donor insists on different implementation in ‘their’ districts. E.g., physical vs mobile money Politicians see it as a ‘donors thing’ Focus was on expansion resulting in low transfer values – easier to sell at home (donor visibility) 1 million+ people dependent on donor funding – stopping will hurt the most vulnerable most Competition also among humanitarian stakeholders – government barely involved Power relations (3/3) Examples from Afghanistan: Humanitarian Cash Transfer (Cash for Work) Long-standing World Bank response to support poverty and livelihoods Taliban takeover in 2021 meant engagement with the de facto authority problematic Donors and UN want to involve women as both beneficiaries and employees – Taliban especially opposed to the latter, requires being brought on board on the former Need for UN to work around restrictions and ‘reach an understanding’ Sometimes donor interests (putting cash in the hands of people) limits what infrastructure might want (more resource-intensive infrastructure) So, compromises are always needed Concluding remarks Cash transfers driven by a need for effective anti-poverty solutions Linked to multiple SDGs, including SDG 1.3 In sub-Saharan Africa HIV/AIDS was also a catalyst Objectives are wide ranging: poverty reduction, health, education, food security Social cash transfers -> long term, humanitarian cash transfers -> short term/acute hardship Beneficiary selection is complex and divisive! Power relations between stakeholders can significantly affect design and implementation. And now, let’s see if opinions changed: poll on your opinion about giving cash transfers Population and Development Pagina 37