POLS 1502 Introduction Summary.docx

POLS 1502 Introduction Summary Definition of Politics -Challenging to define as it involves social activities within groups, marked by discussions, conflicts, and differing opinions on goals and group membership -The scope of the term is also debated, ranging from focusing solely on large entities l...

POLS 1502 Introduction Summary Definition of Politics -Challenging to define as it involves social activities within groups, marked by discussions, conflicts, and differing opinions on goals and group membership -The scope of the term is also debated, ranging from focusing solely on large entities like the state to examining power dynamics within families -In addition, its definition is also complicated by negative connotations, as indicated by scandals such as the Canadian "sponsorship scandal," SNC-Lavalin, and WE Charity -That said, politics also has positive associations, seen to enhance the lives of represented individuals -E.g., there was widespread hope when the American public voted Barack Obama into the White House and when Justin Trudeau and the Liberals were first voted into power in October 2015. Supporters of Donald Trump were also extremely hopeful about his promises to “drain the swamp” when they voted for him in 2016. -Politics is often linked to conflict due to the inherent diversity of interests and values within societies -Therefore, a widely accepted definition of politics is a mechanism through which groups representing varied interests and values collectively make decisions -This definition operates on two assumptions: it assumes societies must have processes for managing multiple conflicting interests and values and it assumes that economic scarcity is an unavoidable aspect of all societies -Overall, then, the association between politics and conflict arises from the need to address divergent interests and allocate limited resources in a way that is acceptable to society at large -Political decisions about how economic goods will be distributed—what the American political scientist Harold Lasswell (1936) called “Who Gets What, When, How”—help to determine both the nature of society and the well-being of those who live in it - The study of politics in pre-19th century focused on values, exploring questions about the good life and the ideal society -According to Stoker, in the past two centuries, there has been a “central divide … between those who prefer liberty over equality and those who prefer equality over liberty” (2006, p. 6). -E.g., the debate over healthcare systems in the U.S. and Canada reflects this divide, with Canadians generally favoring equal access and lower costs over the greater freedom to choose seen in the American system -Political discussions have expanded to encompass issues beyond healthcare, such as environmental concerns. In the 2019 Canadian election, climate change gained prominence as a top issue, leading many cities to declare climate emergencies to underscore the urgency of the matter. Defining Politics: A Few Opinions The provided quotations offer different perspectives on the concept of politics. Here's a breakdown of each quote: Dahl (1991): Defines a political system as any persistent pattern of human relationships that involves control, influence, power, or authority to a significant extent. Easton (1965): Defines a political community by agreement on the authoritative allocation of values. In other words, the community agrees on the rules for legitimately deciding who gets what. Heywood (2013): Broadly defines politics as the activity through which people make, preserve, and amend the general rules under which they live. Politics involves conflict and cooperation, driven by rival opinions, different wants, competing needs, and opposing interests. Politics is not only an academic subject but is found in various aspects of public and private life. Held & Leftwich (1984): Describes politics as a phenomenon present in and between all groups, institutions (formal and informal), and societies. It encompasses both public and private life and is related to the distribution and use of power, influencing resource use and distribution. Emphasizes that politics is not solely about government. Stoker (2006): States that politics is designed to disappoint due to the inherent nature of compromise and reconciliation. The outcomes of political processes are often messy, ambiguous, and never final. These quotes collectively highlight that politics is a pervasive and dynamic aspect of human societies, involving power, authority, conflict, cooperation, and the establishment of rules. It extends beyond formal government structures and is characterized by compromise and the inevitability of imperfect outcomes. Is Politics Unavoidable? -When politics is thought of as handling differences, conflicts, and scarcity, it appears to be an inevitable aspect of all societies -Though not everyone will agree that consensus between competing interests is desirable, and some believe this definition underestimates the possibility of consensus based on agreement -E.g., Marxists, contend that societal differences and conflicts revolve around competing social classes and it would be best to dissolve class differences which would lead to a society characterized by consensus and cooperation, removing the need for politics and the state - Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels asserted in the Communist Manifesto that politics is essentially "the organized power of one class for oppressing another." -They believed that dissolving class differences would eliminate the need for politics since everyone would know the way forward and make decisions accordingly -That said, critics argued that Marxism was overly idealistic, overlooking human differences, ambition, and competition. In addition, historical examples have demonstrated that communist states, like all human societies, have not been exempt from intrigue, corruption, and political maneuvering. - Many Western countries, such as Canada and the United States, use some form of liberal democratic model -Features of this model include regular elections by voters who choose between a range of candidates and/or political parties, several branches of government, including more than one level of elected government, and standardized laws protecting rights such as property ownership, assembly, media criticism, and speech, while laying the basis for civil society -Different parts of the world implement different models -Some models share similarities to the Western models but also have key differences -E.g., East Asian governments, such as China, Malaysia, and Singapore, prioritize economic development over democracy, sometimes compromising civil liberties and democratic procedures -Another example is the fragmentation of Syria giving rise to Daesh, also known as the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), resulting in widespread human rights abuses, particularly against women, until its defeat in 2018 -There are alternatives that diverge vastly from the Western liberal democratic model, such as military regimes in certain African countries and fundamentalist Islamic regimes like the Saudi Arabian monarchy, which prioritize religious norms over civil rights and democracy - Indigenous models of government offer a positive perspective by emphasizing respect for interdependence with the natural world and showcasing the value of consensus decision-making -For example, Indigenous scholar Lisa Monchalin highlights sacred connections between humans and their surroundings, including plants, rocks, and the land, emphasizing equality, interdependence, and a sacred relationship with the world Political Questions Politics raises many questions such as the following: -Values and Decision-Making: -Raises the idea that politics exists because of differing interests and values. As a result, decisions must be made about the distribution of resources. Questions are posed about the values served by these decisions, such as justice and liberty. What constitutes a just decision? Does it benefit the few, the many, or everyone? Is the natural world included in considerations of justice and liberty? -Ethical Considerations: -Explores ethical dimensions by questioning our duties to the natural world, including plants, animals, lands, and waters. This becomes particularly relevant in an era when the Earth is facing sustained threats. -Decision-Making Authority: -Raises questions about who makes decisions and who should make them. Is decision-making concentrated on one person, a few individuals, many people, or the entire population? It also considers the significance of democratic forms of government and questions whether there is a greater obligation to obey decisions made through democratic processes compared to other methods. All these questions reference Aristotle's six-fold classification of political systems, indicating a historical perspective on these questions. Aristotle’s Classification of Governments Aristotle's political philosophy, as outlined in the passage, provides insights into his views on different forms of government. Here are key points: -Evaluation of Government: Aristotle proposed that the effectiveness of a government could be assessed based on the extent to which it governed in the interests of all citizens rather than catering to the interests of a privileged few. -Six-Part Classification: Aristotle developed a six-part classification of governments, categorizing them into three "proper" forms and three "deviant" forms. This classification likely aimed to provide a comprehensive understanding of the variations in political systems. -Proper Forms: Among the "proper" forms of government, Aristotle's preferred system was monarchy. Monarchy, in his view, involved rule for the benefit of all. -Deviant Forms: Aristotle classified democracy as a deviant form of government. He expressed concern that the rule of the many, driven by their own interests, might lead to a kind of mob rule. Despite this, he acknowledged democracy as the least problematic among the deviant forms. -Churchill's Perspective: The passage notes that British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, many centuries later, echoed Aristotle's sentiment by describing democracy as the "least bad form of government." This suggests an acknowledgment of the challenges associated with democracy but also its comparative advantages. -This passage discusses the third fundamental question in political studies: how decisions are enforced. It introduces the concepts of power and authority, highlighting the distinction between the two: -Power vs. Authority: Power is described as the ability to enforce decisions through coercion, where those in power can force compliance from those without power. This often involves the use of force or the threat of force. -Authority, on the other hand, is presented as a form of rule where the ruler is recognized as having a legitimate right to exercise power. In this case, people consent to being ruled, and coercion is theoretically unnecessary. -The passage suggests that regimes relying solely on power tend to be inefficient and unstable. Governments that continually impose coercion may struggle to maintain stability due to civil wars and other revolts, as illustrated by the reference to Robert Mugabe's regime in Zimbabwe. -In contrast, A regime with authority is characterized by legitimacy. Legitimacy implies that people accept the ruler's right to rule, making governance easier, less costly, and more stable. The conversion of power into authority is presented as a goal for most regimes. -Challenges to Authority: Even in democracies, no government enjoys full authority. Some individuals or groups may disagree with government policies, questioning the legitimacy of the ruling authority. -The passage acknowledges challenges to full legitimacy, particularly from Indigenous perspectives, questioning whether one person can represent the views and interests of another. This challenges the theoretical possibility of full authority. The idea of continuous consultation and agreement in decision-making is presented as an alternative perspective. -Imperfections in Democratic Systems: the passage notes that democratic systems are not perfect, especially when a government represents only a minority of voters. This suggests that even in democratic contexts, challenges to authority and representation exist. Boundaries of the Political: State, Society, and the International Community The passage explores the broad and sometimes contested scope of the term "politics," discussing various perspectives on where politics begins and ends. Here are key points from the passage: -Definition of Politics: there is a debate about the boundaries of politics. Some prefer a narrow definition that includes only state institutions, while others argue that such a narrow definition misses important aspects of political life. -Subfields of Politics: The passage mentions subfields of politics, such as political sociology and political economy, which explore the relationships between the state and society and the economy, respectively. -Focus on the State: The historical focus on the state in political analysis is explained by Max Weber's definition of the state having a "monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force." Thus, the state is seen as the highest authority and has sovereignty, both domestically and internationally. -Power and Authority: the passage distinguishes between power and authority. Power involves coercion, while authority relies on legitimacy. The state is considered sovereign, and its ability to make life and death decisions is discussed. -If a state has sovereignty, it has the highest authority within a given territory and can put people to death for crimes they have committed, and it can demand that its citizens fight for their country in wars with other sovereign states. Defined in this way, the state can be distinguished from the government in the sense that it is a much larger entity, containing not just political offices but also bureaucratic, judicial, military, police, and security institutions. This also means the greatest indicator of sovereign capabilities is the ability to make life and death decisions. -Civil Society: The state is distinguished from civil society, which comprises nongovernmental institutions linking individuals and the state. State legitimacy can be contested, both internally and externally (e.g., border disputes with other countries and internal groups seeking independence). -Examples include business organizations, trade unions, religious institutions, voluntary organizations, nongovernmental organizations (ngos), and interest groups of all kinds, such as the Council of Canadians and the Manning Centre -The German philosopher G. W. F. Hegel (1770–1831) distinguished between the family and civil society, but other theorists include the family as an institution within civil society. -Expansion of Political Realm: Scholars argue for an expanded view of politics beyond the state. Politics is seen as operating at various levels, from the family to the international community. -Micropolitical Analysis: The passage mentions Michel Foucault's concept of "micropolitical" analysis, focusing on power dynamics at a small scale. Politics, according to this perspective, is present in all human interactions. -There is a recognition of a shift in the focus of politics as national economies become interdependent, and globalization imposes constraints on individual states. -International Relations: The field of international relations is discussed, with realism emphasizing the state as the dominant actor, while other theories like liberalism, constructivism, poststructuralism, and feminism consider international institutions, other state and non-state actors, the influence of ideas, group identities, and gender. -Wider View of Politics: some scholars argue that politics is at the heart of all collective social activity, encompassing both formal and informal aspects in human groups, institutions, and societies. -Governance vs. Government: The term "governance" is presented as encompassing a wider range of influences on decision-making, going beyond traditional government institutions. It includes inputs from various societal elements such as the market, interest groups, businesses, universities, churches, sports, and families. -Feminist Perspective: Feminists argue that the personal realm is political due to the continued dominance of men in personal relationships and families. The slogan "the personal is the political" underscores the belief that every family is a site of politics regarding control and distribution of resources. -Marxist Perspective: Classical Marxists assert that political power stems from bourgeois dominance over the working classes in the economic realm. This perspective emphasizes the importance of economic structures in shaping political dynamics. -Indigenous Perspective: Indigenous theorists highlight that politics includes all living beings, challenging the anthropocentric view. They assert that waters, plants, and animals have their own laws and rights to exist and live their lives in their own ways. -Animal Rights: there is a discussion of the case for recognizing some nonhuman animals as beings whose interests should be considered in the political process. Proponents of animal rights argue that animals and humans share similarities, animals are innocent, and treating animals well contributes to a more benevolent society. -Deep Ecology: The "deep" ecological school of thought seeks to extend the political boundaries to encompass the entire natural world. This perspective aligns with certain Indigenous forms of knowledge that view existence as interconnected and interrelated. -Climate Change and Religion: As problems of climate change intensify, traditional religious leaders, including Pope Francis, have called for an "integral ecology." This perspective emphasizes the interconnectedness of all beings and the need for a more sustainable and respectful approach to nature. -Interconnectedness and Reconciliation: The interconnectedness of humans with nonhuman animals and the natural world becomes a priority in an era of reconciliation, recognizing the importance of acknowledging and respecting these interdependencies. The Study of Politics The passage provides an overview of the historical development of the study of politics in the Western world, its institutionalization, and the structure of political science education: -Origins of Political Science: The study of politics in the Western world traces back to at least the fifth century BCE, with Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle considered key founders of the discipline. -Evolution of Political Science as a Discipline: Despite its early roots, politics was not an independent discipline in universities until the 20th century. Before then, it had been studied within the context of law, philosophy, and history. -Formation of Academic Associations: The American Political Science Association was formed in 1903, followed by the establishment of the Canadian Political Science Association (CPSA) in 1930. These organizations have played key roles in advancing political studies. -Political Science in Canadian Universities: Today, political science courses and undergraduate degree programs are offered at 45 universities in Canada, along with numerous colleges. The CPSA facilitates academic gatherings, where scholars present their work on various aspects of political science. Three Streams of Political Science Education Traditionally, the teaching of politics is divided into three streams: -Political Ideas (Political Theory or Philosophy): Involves the study of political ideas, conceptual analysis, key figures in the history of political thought, and ideologies. -Political Institutions and Processes within States (Comparative Politics): Encompasses the study of institutions of a single state, comparison of institutions and processes in various states, political history, electoral politics, and public administration. -Relations between States (Global Politics or International Relations): Focuses on the study of international politics, examining the role of states and supranational actors and institutions, either historically or contemporaneously. -Overlap in Political Science Studies: it is emphasized that these three areas of study often overlap since they all involve the interactions of human social groups in various settings. The Rise and Fall of Normative Analysis The passage introduces three major kinds of political analysis—normative, empirical, and semantic—and provides a historical context for their development: Normative Analysis: -Focus: Concerned with questions about values, morality, and what ought to be considered good or desirable. Normative analysis has been central to Western political philosophy for millennia, with classic works like Plato’s Republic, Thomas Hobbes’s Leviathan, and John Rawls’s Theory of Justice aiming to define the “good life” and the desirable societal and political structures -Questions: It asks questions about the values we ought to prioritize, such as freedom, democracy, or equality, and under what circumstances we should obey or disobey laws. -Practical Aspect: Normative theory aims to guide actions in various situations, offering practical advice. It has traditionally been a core component of Western political philosophy, exploring the concept of the "good life." Empirical Analysis: -Focus: Concerned with observable facts, data, and the study of political behavior. -Development: Emerged during the "behavioural revolution" of the 1950s, emphasizing quantitative methods and empirical research. Shift in Emphasis: During the 20th century, empirical analysis gained prominence, particularly in the context of the study of electoral behavior. It often involved number crunching and data analysis. Semantic Analysis: -Focus: Concerned with the meaning of political language and concepts. -Development: Also emerged during the behavioral revolution. Importance: Focuses on understanding how language shapes political thought and action, examining the meaning of terms and the ways in which they are used. Decline of Normative Analysis: -Temporal Context: During much of the 20th century. -Factors Contributing to Decline: -The rise of empirical and semantic analyses. -The "behavioral revolution," which emphasized observable behavior and data analysis. -The influence of positivism, applying scientific methodology to social phenomena. -In this period, philosophizing about what kind of society and polity we ought to have—the basis of normative analysis—was regarded as unnecessary in part because it was difficult to prove Positivism: Associated Figure: Auguste Comte (1798–1857). -Definition of Positivism: positivism is described as a philosophical system that views the scientific or "positive" stage as the final stage in human intellectual evolution. Positivism conceptualizes three major stages in human intellectual history, with the scientific or positive stage being the last. -Limitation to Observables: Positivism asserts that science should restrict itself to what is observable. This implies a focus on empirical evidence and observable facts. -Clear Separation between Fact and Value: Positivism insists on a clear separation between facts and values. It implies that scientific inquiry should be objective and value-free, concentrating solely on verifiable observations. -Logical Positivism: Logical positivism is introduced as an extreme form of positivism. It holds that normative claims, which involve value judgments, are considered meaningless or not within the scope of meaningful analysis. According to logical positivism, only statements that can be empirically investigated or examined semantically are considered meaningful. Behaviorism This approach was developed, particularly in the United States, in the post-1945 period. It stressed the importance of the scientific method in the study of social phenomena. Objective measurement of the social world was the goal, and values were to be eliminated from social inquiry. Behaviouralism assumed that human behaviour is capable of being measured in a precise way and that generalizations can be derived from it. This school of thought reached the height of its influence in political studies in the 1960s. Since then, it has been increasingly challenged by those who question the idea that political science and social inquiry in general are value-free. -Normative political philosophy saw a revival in the latter half of the 20th century, influenced by works like John Rawls's "A Theory of Justice" (1971). -Contemporary political philosophy is characterized by caution and tentativeness, deviating from the grand narratives of the past. -The difficulty of proving many normative statements with empirical evidence has led to a more cautious approach. -Normative statements rely more on intuitive reactions and perceptions than strict logical reasoning. -Political theorists in this field focus on values and their ideal perception of how the world ought to be, rather than describing it as it is. -Some political theorists, like Jeremy Waldron, argue that there are universal aspirations, such as health, bodily integrity, wealth, and liberty, that everyone should aspire to -Normative theory, one of the oldest branches of political theory, continues to play a crucial role in the discipline, often serving as a guide to action. Deductive and Inductive Theories of Politics The passage outlines the distinction between deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning in the empirical study of politics. It also introduces the association of the deductive method with rational choice theories and the inductive approach with behavioralism. Let's break down and elaborate on the key points: -Deductive Reasoning and Rational Choice Theories: -Deductive reasoning involves starting with general principles or assumptions and deriving specific conclusions. In the context of political science, this method is associated with rational choice theories. -Rational choice analysis, originating in economics and influential in political science since the 1970s, assumes that humans are rational beings who seek to maximize their utility. This means individuals make decisions based on what is perceived as most beneficial to them. -The deductive method in rational choice analysis begins with these fundamental assumptions, deducing hypotheses or theories that are then tested against real-world facts. developing general theories based on these empirical findings. -Applications of Rational Choice Theory: -Rational choice theory has been extensively used in game theory, where behaviors are applied to specific situations. Game scenarios highlight challenges faced by rational individuals in reaching optimal outcomes. -The passage attributes the difficulty due to "free riders" who benefit from collective gains without contributing to the group's efforts. This is an example of how rational choice theory is applied to analyze political phenomena. -The passage points out that rational choice theory finds applications in political science, particularly in the fields of voting and party competition, as well as in interest group politics. -In the study of voting and party competition, rational choice theory may be used to analyze how individuals make political choices based on perceived utility. In interest group politics, it could be employed to understand the rational calculations of groups seeking to influence political outcomes. -Deductive Method and Rational Choice Theory Critique: -One criticism of the deductive method is that its fundamental assumptions are often regarded as simplifications or inaccuracies in describing human behavior. The assumptions, such as individuals being rational utility maximizers, may not accurately reflect the complexity of real-world human actions. -Rational choice theory, associated with the deductive approach, is criticized for generating numerous hypotheses about political processes but lacking empirical tests. It is suggested that the theory is better at predicting outcomes based on stated premises than at developing accurate empirical theories of the real world. -Inductive Reasoning and Behavioralism: -Inductive reasoning, characterized by starting with empirical observations and drawing generalizations from them, is compared to the classic scientific method. Behavioralism, an example of inductivism, is highlighted for focusing on quantifiable topics like voting behavior. Thus, it is the opposite of deductive reasoning. -Behavioralism marked a shift away from the formal, legalistic study of institutions and constitutions that was prevalent in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Instead, it focuses on observable behaviors and patterns in political actors. -Inductive reasoning in behavioralism involves gathering data, making observations, and developing general theories based on these empirical findings. -Inductive Method and Behavioralism Critique: -A weakness of the inductive method is noted: while it excels at gathering empirical data, it tends to be weaker in theory generation. The critique aligns with the positivist tradition, and it is suggested that theorists should focus on falsifying existing hypotheses rather than primarily generating new ones. -Another critique is that while inductive reasoning is adept at identifying patterns and correlations in empirical data, it may fall short in providing robust explanations for why those patterns occur. -E.g, finding a statistical correlation between two phenomena, such as social class and voting behavior, does not inherently explain why the correlation exists. The passage presents the example of a correlation between social class and voting behavior in Canada. For instance, identifying a correlation between working-class individuals and voting for a particular party (e.g., New Democratic Party - NDP) may give multiple possible explanations but does not provide a precise explanation for voting behavior. -Differences Between Deductive and Inductive Reasoning: -Inductive: starts with specific examples and moves towards a generalization or theory. Thus, observations->theory/generalization -Deductive: It starts with general principles and moves towards specific conclusions. Thus, theory/principle->observations -Karl Popper's Falsification Principle: -The passage introduces Karl Popper's philosophy of science, emphasizing the importance of falsification. Popper argues that instead of trying to verify hypotheses, scientists should seek to falsify them through rigorous testing. Falsification, according to Popper, is a more robust method for advancing scientific knowledge. -Temporary Nature of Truth Claims and Lack of Explanatory Power: -The passage emphasizes that truth claims in political science are temporary and subject to change based on successful attempts to refute them. Verification is deemed inconclusive, but falsification is considered more definitive. Overall, positivists have tended, since Popper, to show less interest in the inductive method and more in the generation of hypotheses to be refuted. Can Politics Be a Science? The passage delves into the question of whether social sciences, particularly politics, can be considered scientific and the challenges associated with applying a strict scientific methodology to political analysis. Here are the key points: -Definition of Science in Politics: -Politics is described as a science in the sense that it offers ordered knowledge based on systematic inquiry. This implies a structured and organized approach to understanding political phenomena. -Rigorous Definition of Science: -A more rigorous definition of science, according to the passage, would necessitate applying the methodology of the natural sciences to the political realm. This aligns with the efforts of behavioralists who sought to make political science more scientific. -Criteria for Scientific Knowledge Claims: -The passage suggests that a stricter definition of science might involve the ability to generate neutral, dispassionate, and objective knowledge claims. This implies an objective, value-free account of politics. -Challenges to a Truly Scientific Account of Politics: -The passage presents challenges to achieving a truly scientific account of politics. Human behavior, especially in politics, is characterized as unpredictable, and it may not conform to unbending scientific laws as observed in the natural sciences. -The social sciences, including political science, deal with conscious and reflective subjects capable of varied responses under the same stimuli. -Doubts about Assumptions and Values: -Doubts are raised about the assumptions underlying certain theories, such as rational choice theory, and whether these assumptions can withstand empirical observation. -The study of politics is noted to be inherently value-laden, as researchers impose their assumptions and norms on their work from the beginning of a research project. -Inclusion of Values and Norms in Politics: -The passage suggests that attempting to exclude values and norms from the study of politics may be misguided. Politics, by its nature, involves considerations of values and norms, and excluding them could lead to missing crucial aspects of political analysis.