Politics Unit 4 Review: Electoral Systems - PDF

**Politics Unit 4 Review Sheet -- Parties, Electoral Systems, and Citizen Organizations** Election Systems - **Elections** - **Electoral Systems** -- The formal rules and procedures for selecting the executive or members of the legislature. - **Mandate** -- The broad suppor...

**Politics Unit 4 Review Sheet -- Parties, Electoral Systems, and Citizen Organizations** Election Systems - **Elections** - **Electoral Systems** -- The formal rules and procedures for selecting the executive or members of the legislature. - **Mandate** -- The broad support of the people to carry out proposed policies. - **Runoff Election** -- A second and final election held between the top two vote getters when no candidate wins a majority of the votes in the first round of voting. - **Multimember District (MMD) System** -- A method for electing members of a legislature in which two or more representatives are elected from a district. - **Proportional Representation** -- Different electoral systems are designed to address specific concerns or encourage certain outcomes - **Single-Member District (SMD) System --** A system for electing members of the legislature in which the candidate who earns the most votes in a district wins a seat in the legislature. - **Plurality --** The most votes, but not necessarily a majority. Supports of the SMD system say that SMD elections create a strong bond between the citizens and their chosen representative. - **First-past-the-post (FPTP) --** An election rule in a SMD system in which the candidate with a plurality of votes wins a seat in the legislature. - **Criticisms of SMD --** Many votes are "wasted" as the winning candidate does not represent the views of the voters who did not vote for him which is especially true in systems with more than two major parties. SMD systems also overrepresent major parties as they get a greater share of votes in many districts. They also lead to two large-based parties. - **Proportional Representation --** A system for electing members of the legislature in which seats are awarded according to the percentage of votes a party receives. - Seats in PR systems are often filled using a party list. - The party publishes a ranked list of candidates. - If there were 100 names on the ranked list and the party won 20% of the vote, the first twenty names on the party's ranked list would win seats in the legislature. - Usually involves a quota for minimum number of votes (called a threshold). Creates multi-member districts à More than one legislative seat in each district. Ballots are cast for a party, not an individual à Open (People Pick) vs. Closed (Party Picks) List. - Encourages multiple parties. - Advantages - Gives small parties platforms to voice their concerns; small parties may receive important cabinet positions in coalition governments. - In every country in which women hold at least 25% of legislative seats, PR is used in the selection of the legislature; In countries with mixed systems, more women have held PR-linked seats than FPTP district seats. - PR systems lead voters to select among political parties rather than individual candidates, making the policy positions of parties more important. - Disadvantages - While FPTP systems can shut small parties out of the legislature, PR systems can give them a disproportionate amount of power. - Weakens the personal connection between the representative and the citizens. - May not truly reflect the position of voters because of negotiations between parties in the legislature may move policy away from public opinion. - **Mixed Systems --** A system for electing members of the legislature that include both single member districts and seats awarded through proportional representation. E.g. Mexico and Russia (since 2016) - Combines first part the post and proportional. - Some numbers of seats are single member and some are proportional. - **Other Types of Elections** - **Referendums** -- Votes on policy issues - **Plebiscite** -- A non-binding vote to gauge public opinion on an issue - **Initiative** -- Vote on a policy initiated by the people - **Mexico's Elections** - **Mandates in Mexico --** The broad support of the people to carry out their proposed policies. Presidential elections in Mexico have become freer and fairer. - During PRI's rule the sitting president chose his successor through *el dedazo* which strengthened authoritarian rule as citizens had no say over who the next PRI candidate for the president would be. - The El Dedazo was eliminated by the PRI in 1988 which led to the creation of the *National Electoral Institute (NEI)* which reduced voter fraud, making elections more competition. - Mexico also privatized state-owned corporations which reduced the potential for patron-clientelism. - **Mixed Electoral System in Mexico -** Mexico's dual chamber legislature "Congress of Union" which is directly elected like its presidency contains the Chamber of Deputies (lower house) and the Senate (upper house). - Through the voting of representatives in Mexico's Congress of Union, elections take place through a mixed electoral system. - This system for electing members of the legislature that include both single member districts and seats awarded through proportional representation. - **Single-Member Plurality System in Mexico -** Three hundred of the Chamber of Deputies are elected through a single member plurality system (SMD). - In an SMD system, the country is divided into districts that have roughly equal populations. - Each district elects one representative and the candidate with the most votes wins. - **Proportional Representation (PR) System in Mexico --** Two hundred seats in the Chamber of Deputies are elected through Proportional Representation (PR) systems in which parties receive seats according to the percentage of the vote the party earns. - Each political party submits a list of candidates who will be placed in office depending on how many PR seats the party wins. - There is a 2% threshold for a party to win seats in the legislature. - This means that parties earning less than 2% of the vote are not awarded seats and the seats they would have earned are distributed among the parties that meet the threshold. - **Total Number of Members in the Chamber of Deputies --** 500 members - **Members of Chamber of Deputies Elected Through SMD --** 300 members. - **Members of Chamber of Deputies Elected Through PR --** 200 members. - **Total Number of Members in the Mexican Senate --** 128 members - **Members of Mexican Senate Elected Through SMD --** 64 - **Members of Mexican Senate Elected Through PR --** 32 - **Members of Mexican Senate Elected Nationally --** 32 - **Mexico's Referendums --** Referendums are legal but rarely used. The Mexican Constitution allows mechanisms like plebiscites, but political culture relies more on representative democracy. - **United Kingdom's (UK) Elections** - **Single Member Districts (SMD) in the UK --** In the UK there is a single member district system which results in two dominant parties (Labour Party and Conservative Party). - The third party, the Liberal Democrats offer a middle ground between the two major parties but is at a disadvantaged due to the SMD voting system. - The Liberal Democratic Party won between 15-25% of the vote but a smaller share of seats as they do not earn the most votes in most districts. - **First-Past-The-Post (FPTP) in the UK --** Another term for an SMD plurality system, in which the candidate with the most votes wins the seat in a legislative district. This is also called the winner takes all system. - **UK's House of Lords --** Mostly appointed by the Prime Minister some hereditary peers remain. - **UK's House of Commons --** Members are elected through single-member districts (SMD) using a first-past-the-post system. - **UK's Election History** - Between 1979-2010 the Liberal Democratic party had 15-25% of the vote - In 2010 neither the Conservatives nor the Labour Party were party resulting in their shared vote to just 65% the lowest total in decades. - Despite the FPTP system, decreasing support for the two major parties lead to a minority government for the first time since WWII. - Conservative PM David Cameron formed a coalition with the Liberal Democrats to seek a parliamentary majority. - In the 2015 election the incumbent Conservatives won a majority with the Liberal Democrats' vote share collapsing with only eight seats. - Their 2010 popularity reflects as "protest-votes" against both major parties. - The 2017 came close to producing another coalition government similar to that of 2010-2015 as it resulted in a "hung parliament" as the Conservatives just fell short of a majority. - However, they made a deal with the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) from Northern Ireland which agreed to shore up the Conservative Party by supplying their 10 MP votes on key issues, while still not being a coalition. - **UK's Referendums -** Referendums are used occasionally for major constitutional questions (e.g. Brexit in 2016). They are advisory in nature but carry significant political weight. No formal legal requirement for them. - **Russia's Elections** - **Russian Presidential Terms --** Formerly four years, now six years. Maximum of two consecutive terms. - The term under the Russian constitution was four years, but in 2008, it was increased to six years, effective in 2012. - There was a maximum of two consecutive terms until 2020, when voters approved constitutional amendments resetting presidential terms, allowing Vladimir Putin to run for two more terms. - **Russian Presidential Election --** Directly elected by citizens. - **Russian Prime Minister--** Selected by President. - **Duma Election -** 450 members, elected through a mixed system (half by proportional representation, half by SMD). - **Russian Federation Council -** Members are appointed by regional governments (2 per region). - **Dmitry Medvedev --** Prime Minister in the Putin administration. - Elected president in May 2008, with 71% of the vote. Medvedev named Putin as prime minister and head of the United Russian party. - Putin retained power informally, even though he was not the president. - After one term, Putin and Medvedev switched roles again, with Putin running for and winning presidency in 2012 and Medvedev returning to the prime minister position. - In 2008, during the Medvedev presidency, a successful constitutional amendment had lengthened the presidential term to six-year terms, allowing him to remain president until 2024. - **Alexei Navalny --** Putin's most serious rival, known for organizing nationwide anticorruption campaigns was barred from running for President. - Putin also distanced himself from the United Russia, running as an independent in hopes this would increase his margin of victory in a non-competitive race. - The government also engaged in a massive get-out-the-vote campaign and scheduled the election for the anniversary of the annexation of the Crimea to appeal to voters who like Putin's "tough guy" foreign policy. - **Russia's Referendums --** Referendums are legally permitted but rarely used in practice. The 1993 referendum on the Constitution is a key example. - **Nigeria's Elections --** Nigerians directly elect the president and both houses of the National Assembly. - **Plurality in Nigeria --** The winning candidate must obtain a plurality of the votes and at least 25% of the vote in two thirds of the states to assume presidency. This encourages candidates to gain representation throughout the country to ensure support from diverse groups of supporters. - **Runoff Elections in Nigeria --** Occurs between the top two vote-getters if no candidate wins the election with at least 25% of votes in 2/3 of the states. - **Elections for the House of Representatives --** Held every four years utilizing a single member district (SMD) system to fill the 360 seats in the House each of which represent electoral districts that are roughly equal in population. - **Elections for the Senate --** Members serve four-year terms. Each state is divided into three districts with one senator elected from each state. Another senator is elected from the Federal Capital Territory of Abuja. - **Election Fraud --** Prevalent since the founding of Nigeria's Fourth Republic but seems to be improving. - **INEC --** Has become more effective in overseeing elections. - **Nigeria's Referendums --** Referendums are rarely used. The Constitution does not emphasize referendums as a tool for decision-making in the federal system. - **China's Elections -** Indirect elections for leaders of the party and the government with the CCP as the only party allowed to control government. - **China's General Secretary -** Chosen by the National Party Congress based on a recommendation of the Standing Committee. - **Members of China's National Party Congress --** Selected by party members at local and regional congresses. - **China's President --** Chosen by the National People's Congress where they approve of the presidential candidate selected by the party elite. - **China's Premier --** Nominated by the President, approved by the National People's Congress. - **Members of China's National People's Congress -** Chosen by local and regional government bodies. - **Local Level Elections in China --** Changes to the electoral system for local level congresses have provided opportunities for voter participation and representation within the confines of the ruling party. - China holds direct elections for most local level of government-village committees. - Candidates can be nominated by the party, other local organizations or any group of ten citizens. - **China's Referendums --** Referendums are not a part of the political system. Decision-making is centralized under the Communist Party, and public referendums are not utilized. - **Iran's Election --** Iran's regime has allowed limited but competitive elections since it began, though the degree of competition has varied. - **Multimember District (MMD) System in China --** Employed for the election of Iran's 290-member Majles. - In MMDs there is more than one representative elected in a district Citizens in MMDs can vote for the same number of candidates as the number of seats available in the district. - Several separate elections are held at the same time. If a district has thirty seats, citizens have thirty votes to vast. - Candidates who earn 25% of the vote are awarded a seat. If a seat is left over a runoff election is held. - **Iran's Guardian Council -** Uses its authority to prevent candidates from running from office hindering free and fair elections. - Has allowed significant competition at times. - **Iran's Majles --** 290 Members elected through s mixed single member district and multimember district (MMD system). - **Two-Round System in Iran --** Used for Iran's presidential elections. - If no candidate earns more than 50% of the vote in the first round, a second round of elections is held between the top two vote-getters. - Countries like Iran use a two round election system to give the winner a mandate to purse their policy proposals because more than half the voters showed support for the candidate, at least in the second round. - **Mohammad Khatami --** A reformist cleric, Mohammad Khatami won the 1997 presidential election in a sweeping majority that many observers saw as the start of a major liberalization of the political system. - Until 200, conservatives in parliament were numerous enough to block major reforms. - In the 2000 Majles elections, Khatami's popularity led to the Guardian Council not preventing reformist candidates from running leading to reformists winning 80% of the vote. - **Iran's Referendums --** Referendums are not a part of the political system. Decision-making is centralized under the Communist Party, and public referendums are not utilized. Political Parties - **Types of Party System** - **Party System --** The number of and strength of political parties within a country - **One-Party-System --** A country where only one party is allowed to control the government. - **Dominant Party Systems --** A party system in which multiple parties exist, but one party dominates the executive branch and wins most of the seats in the legislature. - **Two-Party System --** A party system in which only two parties are able to garner enough votes to win an election, although more may compete. - **Multiparty System --** A party system in which more than two parties can win a national election and control the government. - **Impact of Electoral System on the Number of Parties --** The electoral system used has tremendous effect on a country's party system. - **Duverger's Law --** The idea that a SMD system tends to create a two party system. - **Catch-All Parties --** A party that takes ideologically diverse, usually middle-of-the-road positions to capture as many voters as possible. Common in two party systems. - PR systems tend to be multi-party systems. Ideologically diverse parties serve in the legislature. - **Declining Citizen Support for Political Parties --** Support for political parties, especially in wealthier countries -- has been declining. Possibly due to the following: - There are fewer distinctive differences between parties, especially in Europe. - An inability for parties to deliver government goods and services to supporters because of budget constraints. - New technologies that have replaced parties as a source of information about policies and candidates. - **Emergence of New Parties --** New parties have emerged including: - Environmental or green parties. - Far right parties focus on economic decline and oppose immigration. - **Mexico's Political Parties --** Multiparty system. Three dominate: MORENA, PRI, PAN. - **Impact of Mexico's Electoral System --** PR system elements in the mixed electoral system foster multiparty representation, allowing smaller parties to gain seats in the legislature. - **Mexico's Partido de la Revolución Institution (PRI)** - Founded in 1929 controlled government until 2000 - Claimed legitimacy partly based on the basis of the legacy of the Mexican Revolution of 1910-1920. - Used patron-clientelism to reinforce legitimacy - **Mexico's Partido de la Revolución Democraticia (PRD)** - Emerged in the 1980s as a party on the left opposing free market reforms and advocated social policies to help workers and the poor. - AMLO ran as the PRD's 2006 candidate for presidency, he refused to acknowledge the PAN's win which tarnished PRD's image. - AMLO ran again in 2012 and lost to the PRI candidate leading to him leaving the PRD. - **Mexico's Partido Acción Nacional (PAN)** - Right leaning party representing conservative interests - Founded in 1939 and won presidency for Vicente Fox in 2000 and Felibe Calderón in 2006 - Socially conservative and supports the Catholic Church - Economic policies are pro-business, support free market reforms. - Support concentrated in the North. - **Mexico's Movimiento de Regeneración Nacional (MORENA)** - Created by AMLO in 2016 after he left the PRD - AMLO won presidency as MORENA's leader in 2018 - AMLO promised a more honest government that was closer to the people, however, the administration has been criticized for making vague promises and shifting policy proposals that send mixed signals to the public. - **United Kingdom's (UK) Political Parties --** Two Party/Dominant Party System. Two Major Parties are Conservative Party and Labour Party. - **Impact of the UK's Electoral System --** SMD system favours the two-party structure (Duverger's Law). - Smaller parties (e.g., Liberal Democrats, SNP, Greens) have limited influence at the national level. - **UK's Labour Party --** Created by Unions to give workers a voice in Parliament. - Union Members were automatically party members through their union membership, regardless of political preference. - Advocated for socialism and supported the establishment of a welfare state. - Decline in power in the 1980s leading them to become a moderate party on the left. - Split over Brexit Labour leaders suggested that they would recommend a second referendum on Brexit if they were able to regain control of the government in 2017, which they did not. - **Tony Blair -** Prime Minister in 1997 with a Labour victory. Under his rule the party enacted democratic reforms, including the devolution of power to regional assemblies. - **UK's Conservative Party (Tory Party) -** Party on the Political right, originally to represent the elite. - Has always been practical. - Expanded the welfare state following World War II and supported the Labour Party's creation of the National Healthy Service (NHS) - **Margaret Thatcher** -- Prime Minister in the 1980s. - **Theresa May** -- Replaced former PM David Cameron in 2016 following the voter's approval of the Brexit referendum. Suffered multiple defeats over her Brexit plans as MPs, even in her own party, openly defied her. Survived no-confidence votes by Conservative MPs in 2018 and the full Parliament in 2019. May resigned over her inability to pass a plan for exiting the EU. - **Boris Johnson** -- Elizabeth May's successor and strong proponent of Brexit. Quickly quarreled with MPS, expelling many critical Conservative MPs from the party. Attempted to prorogue (suspend) Parliament for five weeks in September and October 2019. About two weeks into the suspension, the Supreme Court ruled it invalid. - **UK Independence Party --** Largely reliant on voters in England, saw its star rise and peak in 2015. - **Nigel Farage --** Longtime leader of the party. Held a successful campaign for Brexit through the 2016 referendum, as he and the party rode a wave of populist support for anti-immigration policies. Stepped down after the referendum. - **Scottish Nationalist Party (SNP)** -- Arose with Scottish Nationalism - Has controlled the government in Scotland most of the time since devolution gave the region its own parliament in 1999. - Although it lost the 2014 referendum on Scottish independence, the SNP's membership swelled dramatically after that loss, and it subsequently swept Scotland's seats in the UK Parliament in 2015. - **Plaid Cymru --** The Welsh nationalist party which advocates for Wales becoming an independent state. - **Russia's Political Parties --** Dominant Party System. United Russia dominates the executive and legislature. - **Impact of Russia's Electoral System --** Mixed electoral system with PR and SMD components favors the ruling party. - State influence over media and elections strengthens United Russia's control. - **United Russia --** Shortly after becoming president in 1999, Putin encouraged a couple of smaller parties in the Duma to merge to create United Russia. Founded in 2001 and is a conservative nationalist party that supports Putin. - The key task in creating a single dominant party was overcoming the independent strength of regional elites. - Putin offered regional elites incentives to join United Russia, promising them access to the state resources, which they could use to build loyalty through a patronage system. - United Russia nearly won a majority of seats in the Duma in 2003, with 223 seats, and the party has won the majority of seats in the Duma since 2007. - Like Mexico under PRI rule until 2000, Russia allows other parties to run candidates and win some legislative seats, but the system is structured so that one party dominates the legislature. - **Communist Party of the Russian Federation (CPRF) -** The successor party to the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) - Formed by politicians from the former Soviet Union - Second largest party in Russia with more than 160,000 members. - Ideology is a mix of nationalistic, imperialistic, and communist tendencies, - The CPRF accepts the free market, although wants the government to constrain some of the negative effects of a free market economy, - Won 57 seats nearly 19% of the Duma in the 2021 Election. - **Liberal Democratic Party of Russia** - Nationalist party that is neither liberal nor democratic. - Led by Vladimir Zhirinovsky, who has called for Russia to take Alaska back from the United States. - He also encouraged the US to take steps to preserve the white race - Supports state regulation of a mixed economy and a foreign policy of expansionism. - Won 21 seats in the 2021 election. - **A Just Russia --** A pro-welfare socialist party created to lure voters away the CPRF. - Several centre left parties merged to form this party to reresent the Russian people instead of the elite in power. - Declared support for Putin. - Won 27 seats in Duma in 2021 election. - **New People -** Fourth party made its debut winning 13 seats in the 2021 election. - **Nigeria's Political Parties --** Multiparty System. Many parties exist, but APC (All Progressives Congress) and PDP (People's Democratic Party) dominate. - **Nigeria's Two-Party Democracy -** May bode well for democracy. Both parties must consider the interests of diverse groups of voters and appeal to people in both the north and the south. As a result, political parties have the potential to serve as a unifying factor in the Nigerian political system. - **Impact of Nigeria's Electoral System --** Mixed election system (SMD and PR) allows for multiparty competition, but ethnic and regional divides influence party success. - **Nigeria's People's Democratic Party (PDP) --**Dominated Nigeria's executive in the Fourth Republic's first election in 1999. - Became dominant in regionally, ethnically, and religious divided Nigeria by agreeing that political offices would alternate among regions. - The party split in 2013 when a former vice president and seven state governors stormed out of the party convention. - This resulted in the PDP building in an opposition coalition with several smaller parties in the competitive 2015 election. - **Nigeria's All Progressives Congress (APC) --** The newly united opposition party which took advantage of President Jonathan's unpopularity due to his inability to defeat Boko Haram in the north. - Campaigned on security, improving the economy, reducing corruption, and improving the quality of elections. - Muhammadu Buhari won the election in 2015 with the APC also winning majorities in both houses of the National Assembly. - They won the 2019 election again dominating the Presidency, Senate, and House of Representatives. - **China's Political Parties --** One Party System. The CCP is the only party allowed to govern. - **Impact of China's Electoral System --** No meaningful elections for competitive political office. Other parties (8 officially recognize) exist but function as affiliates of the CPC, not as opposition parties. - The CCP has been in power since 1949 under a one-party system. - The government has sanctioned eight other political parties like the Chinese Peasant's and Workers' Democratic Party however they are not allowed to run candidates for national office or to control the government. - These state endorsed parties are interest groups to advocate for certain policy areas and consult with the government. - **Iran's Political Parties --** One-Party Dominant. Parties are officially discouraged: political organizations are often tied to religious and ideological factions. - **Impact of Iran's Electoral System --** Elections controlled by the Guardian Council limits competition. Candidates must align with the Islamic Republic's values, creating a de facto dominant party (aligned with clerics). - **Iranian political parties are weak, despite the Islamic constitution's** guarantee of a right to form parties, they were banned in 1987 by Khomeini who claimed they produced unnecessary divisions. - Reformist president, Khatami successfully legalized parties in 1998, but following the 2009 election the government banned the two leading reformist presidents. - Parties exist as coalitions around individual leaders, not as enduring organizations with which citizens identify. - The Guardian Council's power to vet candidates for office also undermines the strength of political parties by blocking their preferred candidates. - **Two Main Ideological Factions in Iran** -- one economic and one political. - **The Economic Division** -- The familiar division that arises in many countries between those who favour economic policies emphasizing greater market forces and those who favour greater role for the state, such as using oil revenue to fund programs for the poor. - **The Political Division** - Unique to Iran and it distinguishes those who believe in the nearly absolute power of the supreme leader, with legitimacy coming solely from religion, and those who believe legitimacy should also stem from citizens' preferences expressed in elections. Interest Groups and Social Movements - **Interest Groups --** Associations of Individuals or businesses that attempt to influence government. - They advocate for a wide variety of causes including: - Environmentalism - Business Interests - Labour Interest - Different from political parties because they do not run candidates for office. - **Interest Group Pluralism -** Interest groups at least in pluralist systems, use many different methods to influence government like campaign contributions, organizing protests, media campaigns, lobbying, and filing lawsuits. - **Pluralism --** A system in which groups are allowed to form and advocate for their interests outside of government control. - Government is neutral (in theory). - Multiple groups exist for most issues à Can lead to gridlock because of too many groups. - **Corporatist system --** A system in which the state controls interest groups and chooses the ones it wishes to recognize. - **Single-peak associations --** An organization that brings together all interest groups in a particular sector to influence and negotiate agreements with the government. Advantages include efficiency in policymaking. - **Social Movements -** A group that has a loosely defined organizational structure and seeks major socioeconomic or cultural change. - Civil rights for different groups in society à race, sexual identity, gender, police reform. - **Grassroots movement --** When citizens at the local level band together to advocate for a cause. - Most social movements are progressive, but there are exceptions such as: - Brexit - Anti-Immigrant Movements - Far-Right Movements. - **Mexico's Interest Groups and Social Movements** - **Corporatism in Mexico** -- When Mexico was a single-party dominant state under PRI rule, the government used state corporatism to control interest groups. - **Peak association** -- An organization authorized by the government to represent a group, such as labor, business, agriculture. - **Pluralism** -- As Mexico democratizes, pluralism is replacing corporatism. In a pluralist system, groups are allowed to form and advocate for their interests outside of government control. New groups have the ability to form and compete in the policymaking process. More democratic than corporatism, because small groups are not left out of the policymaking process, and the government does not favour a few groups over others. - **The Zapatista Rebellion** - **EZLN** -- The Zapatista Army of Nation Liberation was formed among indigenous groups who migrated to the jungle and carved out farms. Named after Emiliano Zapata, an agrarian reformer and hero of the Mexican Revolution who was assassinated by the military in 1919. In 1993 the government discovered the group and engaged in a small battle. - **NAFTA** -- The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) was an important catalyst for the Zapatista Rebellion. To implement NAFTA, the Mexican government had to remove the Mexican Constitution's Article 17. - **Ejido** -- Part of Article 17 of Mexican's Constitution which protects communal land ownership supported by the state (eijdo rights). Private ownership of eijdo land meant that instead of the government holding land for indigenous persons the land could be bought and sold to wealthy individuals giving them an advantage over subsistence farmers. - **Summarize the Zapatista Rebellion** -- The Zapatista Rebellion was a social movement to protest the removal of Article 17 which protected Indigenous lands. Through holding two significant conferences in the 1990s the Zapatista Rebellion is an example of a successful social movement that garnered government attention, raising awareness of the plight of indigenous people. - **United Kingdom's (UK) Interest Groups and Social Movements** - Confederation of British Industry (CBI) for Business - Trades Union Congress (TUC) for labour - - **Russia's Interest Groups and Social Movements** - Interest Groups are relatively weak as groups that criticize the government are portrayed as disloyal. - **Constraints Russia's Civil Society --** A law from 2012 requires groups who participate in foreign activity or receive foreign assistance to register as "foreign agents". - Nonpolitical groups can form if they are consistent with the regime and Russian cultural values. - **Social Movements in Russia --** Social movements in Russia have been focused on LGBTQ issues and voting rights. - **Voting Rights Social Movements in Russia --** Protests like those from 2011-2012 that criticized the government on the basis of election fraud were resisted by the regime. - **LGBTQ Social Movements in Russia --** Social movements for LGBTQ rights have been opposed with an "anti-gay propaganda law" which prohibits information that the state believes promotes homosexuality to minors including counseling services for LGBTQ youth. - A constitutional amendment was made in 2020 to ban same sex marriage, stipulating that marriage is between a man and woman. The same year the Duma considered a law that banned transgender people from changing their sex on birth certificates. - Russian LGBTQ activists have used social media to advocate for causes they believe in. - **Nigeria's Interest Groups and Social Movements** - Civil society has existed in Nigeria since before independence, yet, decades of military rule daleyed the development of Nigerian civil society. - Civil rights violations against critics of the government prevented groups from advocated for change. - Weak government institutions made it difficult for interest groups and social movements to impact government policy. - Nigeria's civil society has broadened through the state's democratization. - **Arewa Consultative Forum --** A regional interest group that advocates for the interests of northern Nigeria. - **Professional and Labour Groups** -- Include the Nigerian Medical Association, the Nigerian Bar Association, the Nigeria Labour Congress, and the Nigerian Union of Journalists. - **Grassroots Organizations in Nigeria --** Like the Grassroots Health Organization of Nigeria, foucus on issues affecting their communities. - **Difficulties for Nigerian Interest Groups --** Despite the prevalence of Nigerian interest groups there are obstacles to strengthening civil society through weak government institutions and distrust between groups. - **Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP) --** An ethnic organization based in the Niger River Delta made up of several member groups. - Represents the Ogni people in advocating for improved social, economic and environment conditions. - A cultural and political organization that seeks self-determination and protection for traditional practices of the Ogoni people. Promotes nonviolence and supports democratic government. - **Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND) --** Emerged under the leadership of Henry Okah. - Mainly a regional movement consisting of several loosely coordinated groups, without a clear leader. - Lucrative tactics and has attracted wealthy financial backers. - Their goal is to make it impossible for the government to produce and export oil by threatening international companies and their workers operating in the Niger River Delta. - **Niger Delta Avengers (NDA) --** Formed in 2016 and targets have included a pipeline owned by Shell Oil. - **China's Interest Groups and Social Movements** - **Mao Era Control** -- Under Mao, the CCP controlled all aspects of society, including jobs, housing, and services. - **Guanxi (Connections)** -- Personal networks, including family and social ties, were crucial for success, and they remain influential today despite reforms since the 1980s. - **Limited Civil Society** -- While the CCP still restricts independent groups, it no longer has complete control over them. - **The All-China Federation of Trade Unions (ACFTU)** -- The only legal union during Mao's rule. Private sector growth has challenged CCP's monopoly over labor organizations. - **The** **2008 labor law** -- Made arbitration and court cases easier, leading to a rise in disputes. - **Worker Rights & Global Economy** -- Many urban workers struggle to secure rights, as many are part-time, temporary, or casual workers. - **NGOs & Government Control** -- The number of officially registered NGOs tripled between 2000 and 2012 to over half a million. - The government created a registration system to control NGOs, initially requiring a government agency sponsor. - Some NGOs, particularly those focused on social services, can achieve a limited degree of autonomy. - NGOs with political aims are considered threats to the regime. - **Xi Jinping's Crackdown on NGOs** -- 2016 law required 7,000 foreign NGOs to register and disclose funding. - Legal status denied to NGOs that could threaten regime stability. Chinese NGOs were restricted from foreign funding and partnerships. - Religious organizations also face restrictions, requiring state registration. NGOs must allow CCP members to observe their operations, acting as watchdogs. - **Iran's Interest Groups and Social Movements** - **Constraints on Iran's Civil Society --** The Iranian government places significant limits on citizens' ability to voice opinions and engage in political activity. - Nonetheless, the country has seen growing pressure for change. - **Reformism in Iran -** Iran has a more active civil society than is present in many Middle Eastern countries. - In the 1990s reformist movement arose that argued for a more open and tolerant interpretation of Islam, one that would allow wider discussion and action. - **Green Movement -** Emerged in response to allegations of fraud in the 2009 election and showed both the strength and weakness of Iran's civil society. - A decentralized organized system use social media as the means for communication about the 2009 election, aided by public statements and occasional public appearances by reformist leaders. - Around a million people marched the streets of Tehran but the demonstrations did not have much effect in the countryside. - The movement had no clear formal organization. - Protests continued for weeks, giving youthful participants hope that change was possible but the government successfully repressed protesters despite widespread international condemnation.