Political Systems PDF

Politics in its broadest sense is the process WEEK 1 process Politics, in its broadest sense, is the process through which people create...

Politics in its broadest sense is the process WEEK 1 process Politics, in its broadest sense, is the process through which people create, maintain, and change the addcemic 8 fonddm. rules that govern their lives. While politics is also an academic subject (sometimes written with a capital P), it is fundamentally about how people engage with each other in society to resolve conflicts and cooperate. Politics is closely tied to conflict and cooperation. There are always differing opinions, needs, and conflict scooperation interests among people, which lead to disagreements about how things should be done. However, in order to influence or uphold rules, people must also work together. This is why politics is often seen as a way of resolving conflicts, though not all conflicts can be fully resolved. The need for politics need 4 Politics arises because of the diversity of people’s views and the scarcity of resources. arises The word 'politics' is complicated because it has many associations in everyday language. Unlike complexity of the subjects like economics or history, people often have strong opinions or biases when they think Word Politics. about politics. Politics is sometimes seen negatively, linked to corruption, manipulation, and violence. This negative view has been around for a long time, as seen in quotes from historical figures like Samuel Johnson and Henry Adams. Another problem in defining politics is that experts don’t always agree on what politics actually anothdeertitbit means. Some see it as the exercise of power, others as the study of government, or as the process of experts dont agree making decisions and distributing resources. The definition used in this text—"the making, on what it means. preserving, and amending of general social rules"—is broad enough to include most of these views, but problems arise when trying to explain what exactly politics involves. For example, does politics only refer to peaceful debate or include all ways of making or changing rules? Does politics only happen in government and public life, or in all areas of society? Because of these varying views, politics can be considered an “essentially contested” concept, 1) Politics is assoc with a location meaning there are many valid interpretations of the term. Two main approaches to defining politics or an arena, are discussed. One approach ties politics to a specific location, meaning political behaviour occurs in in which hehav a certain setting. The other approach sees politics as a process, where political behaviour is defined becomes political because of where by certain characteristics, and can happen anywhere. These different approaches have led to in all social contexts. It takes place different definitions of politics and shaped the study of politics in academia. "olitics as Politics as the art of government. This definition traces back to the idea that politics involves art of gov. controlling society by making and enforcing collective decisions. This view comes from Ancient Greece, where politics referred to the affairs of a "polis" (city-state). In modern times, this has evolved to mean "what concerns the state." "someone is in politics" When we say someone is "in politics," we usually mean they hold a public office or are trying to get one. This traditional view of politics focuses on the government and how authority is exercised. The traditional view American political scientist David Easton defined politics as the "authoritative allocation of values," meaning politics involves how the government responds to societal pressures by distributing David Easton definite benefits or penalties based on accepted values. Authority definition Authority can be Authority is an important concept here. It is "legitimate power"—the right to influence others' defined as legitimatebehaviour, unlike just the ability to do so through force or manipulation. There are three types of types of ath. power. Whereas power is the authority: traditional (based on history), charismatic (based on personality), and legal-rational ability to info. (based on rules). the behavior of others, authority is the This view of politics, however, is quite limited. It focuses on government settings—like cabinet right to do so. rooms, legislatures, and government offices—and the people involved in these areas, such as politics is what takes place within a polity, It Is practiced in cabinet rooms, legislative Chambers & Is engaged by a limited 8 #⑤ specific group of people, like politicians, civil servants & lobbyist. def  politicians and civil servants. As a result, many areas of life, like businesses, schools, or families, are considered "non-political" because they aren't involved in governing. Also, this definition doesn't consider the growing influence of international or global forces on politics. Party politics Sometimes, politics is also understood more narrowly as "party politics." This refers to the political activities of people who are part of formal organizations like political parties and are motivated by ideological beliefs. In this sense, only those actively involved in political parties are considered "political," while people like judges or civil servants are seen as "non-political" if they are neutral. negative A negative view of politics often arises because politics is linked with politicians, who are sometimes seen as power-hungry and dishonest. Media coverage of political corruption has made this view anti-politics view of more common, and people may become disillusioned with formal political processes, leading to politics what is called "anti-politics." This term refers to the rejection of traditional political life, often shown disillusioned with by not participating in elections, supporting anti-system parties, or using direct action to bring about formal political change. processes Niccolò Machiavelli was an Italian politician and author who lived in politically unstable Florence. He served as a government official, traveling to France, Germany, and Italy on missions. After being Machiavelli imprisoned and seeing the return of the Medici family to power, he began writing. His most famous work, *The Prince*, published in 1532, was based on his observations of political leaders like Cesare Borgia and aimed to offer advice for rulers in a unified Italy. The term "Machiavellian" later came to mean being cunning and deceitful. This view of politics reflects a common belief that power is corrupting. People often think politicians negative view of use their power for personal gain, which is why the phrase "power tends to corrupt, and absolute politics power corrupts absolutely" became famous. Despite this negative view, many agree that politics, powersis corrupting with its inevitable issues, is necessary for society to function. Instead of eliminating politics, the goal poweD r should be to ensure it is conducted responsibly, with checks to prevent the abuse of power. def. Power is generally defined as the ability to achieve a desired outcome. In politics, it often means influencing others, sometimes through manipulation or coercion, and is about having "power over" Power is the ability to influence the behavior of others in a manner not of their choosing. others. 2 Politics as Public Affairs: Another, broader definition of politics includes public life, not just government. Aristotle, the ancient Greek philosopher, believed humans are naturally political beings Ppl#Effairs 2 and that a "just society" should be the goal of politics. Politics, in this view, is about working toward , a fair and ethical society. The distinction between "public" and "private" life is important in understanding politics. The Aristot e difference "public" sphere involves state institutions like government, police, and courts, which are funded by between Public taxpayers and help organize society. The "private" sphere involves groups like families, businesses, s private and clubs, which operate independently of the state. Politics is often thought of as something that life only occurs in the public sphere, focusing on government activities. Civil Civil Society: This term refers to private institutions—like businesses, interest groups, and clubs— that exist independently of the government. In modern discussions, "civil society" can also refer to Society non-governmental organizations (NGOs) or global movements. civilsol consists of institutions dof setups funded by citizens to satisfy their needs Some thinkers, particularly feminists, argue that politics should not be limited to the public sphere. Feminist perspective They believe that traditionally, women have been confined to the private, domestic realm, while on public/private men dominated the public political sphere. This division has helped maintain gender inequality. sphere Feminists argue that the personal, including family life and gender roles, should be seen as political  because it affects women’s rights and equality. For feminists, addressing gender inequality requires looking at how personal life and social structures shape political power and relationships. Politics as a "public" activity has both positive and negative views. politics as public activity positives negative views The positive view sees politics as an important and noble activity. Thinkers like Aristotle, Hannah Arendt, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and John Stuart Mill believed that politics is essential because it allows people to interact as free and equal citizens. Aristotle saw politics as noble because it brings people together to live a good life. Hannah Arendt argued that politics is the most meaningful activity because it gives life purpose and affirms each person's uniqueness. Rousseau thought that only through active participation in politics could citizens contribute to the common good. John Stuart Mill believed that being involved in politics helps individuals grow personally, morally, and intellectually. In contrast, the negative view of politics sees it as interference in private life. Some liberal theorists prefer that politics stay out of personal affairs, viewing private life as a space for freedom and choice. They argue that politics can restrict people's freedom, such as in how businesses operate, how families raise children, or how people play sports. From this perspective, politics is seen as unwholesome because it prevents people from acting as they wish. Consensus The concept of consensus refers to an agreement that is broad and fundamental, even if it doesn'tconsensus involve agreeing on all the details. This means that people or groups may have differing views on smaller issues but still share a common understanding on core principles or goals. Consensus is 2. types divided into two types: procedural consensus, which is a willingness to make decisions through discussion, consultation, and bargaining, and substantive consensus, which refers to an agreement on broad policy goals or fundamental values, even if there are disagreements on specific details. Politics as compromise and consensus focuses on how decisions are made, particularly how conflicts βItICS⑤ 3 are resolved through negotiation, compromise, and discussion, instead of through force or violence. compromise This perspective suggests that politics should be about finding common ground through peaceful and consensus debate, rather than using military or forceful solutions. The idea of politics as a process of negotiation goes back to Aristotle, who believed that the best system of government was a "mixed" aristotle one, combining aristocratic and democratic features. system A modern proponent of this view was Bernard Crick, who defined politics as a way of resolving conflicts by giving different groups a share of power, in proportion to their importance for the community’s well-being. Crick emphasized that when groups with differing interests hold power, Bernard they should be reconciled, not crushed. This view of politics reflects a belief in the power of debate Crick politics and discussion, as well as the idea that society is generally more characterized by consensus than by definition irreconcilable conflict. The disagreement that exists can be resolved peacefully, without resorting to violence or intimidation. ↓ However, critics argue that Crick’s view is mainly relevant to pluralist democracies, where political☑critics parties compete for power. His definition doesn’t necessarily apply to one-party states or military regimes. The view of politics as compromise and consensus is generally seen as positive. It emphasizes Politics as peaceful conflict resolution, which is considered better than violence and bloodshed. But it's not a comprs cons. perfect solution, because compromise often means that no one gets exactly what they want, and is positive, everyone has to make concessions. Despite this, it's seen as a more civilized way to approach problems. not perfect since no one Gets what they really want.  frustration people face with politics as comp. s cons. However, some argue that the frustration people experience with this kind of politics—where dissipignet with decisions take time and involve listening to others' viewpoints—has led to a growing disillusionment with democracy in many places. This frustration is reflected in the rise of populism, where there is a rise of POPULISM rejection of compromise and a focus on more conflict-driven politics. For example, the election of Donald Trump in the U.S. is often seen as part of this trend, which emphasizes conflict over Donald Trump consensus. 41 politics The view of politics as power is a broad and radical definition that extends politics beyond as government or public life, seeing it as present in all areas of human social interaction. Politics, power according to this view, is involved in every aspect of life, whether in families, small groups, or at the national and global levels. The key aspect of political activity is its relationship with power, which is the ability to achieve a desired outcome. Power can be exercised in different ways, leading to different "faces" or forms of power. These include: 1. Power as decision-making, where power influences the content of decisions, like in Robert Dahl’s study of democracy. 2. Power as agenda-setting, where power is used to prevent decisions or ideas from being faces/forms considered, by controlling the political agenda. of power 3. Power as thought control, where power influences people's thoughts or beliefs, such as through propaganda or advertising. Politics is At its core, politics is about managing the distribution and use of resources, which are always limited- he struggle compared to human desires. Politics, in this sense, becomes a struggle over scarce resources, and for scarce power is the tool through which this struggle is fought. rest & power is the 6001 Feminists and Marxists have contributed significantly to this understanding. Feminists, particularly in through which feminist the 1960s and 1970s, argued that the personal is political, meaning that power dynamics exist even struggle in personal and private relationships, not just in the public sphere. Radical feminists see politics as is fought. 8 the power structures that control and subjugate certain groups, particularly women, in a patriarchal society. Marxists also view politics as power, but from an economic standpoint. They believe that Marxist political power reflects class struggles, where the ruling class oppresses the working class. For perspective Marxists, politics is deeply tied to the economic base of society, and they argue that true political change comes through a revolution that overthrows class exploitation. Both feminists and Marxists portray politics as inherently tied to oppression, but they also believe that politics can be an emancipating force. Feminists hope for a non-sexist society, while Marxists look for a classless, communist society where political struggles would eventually cease. In both views, the goal is to overcome the power structures that oppress people. WEEK 2 the right to be ruled based on acceptance by the governed Legitimacy refers to the rightfulness of a regime or system of rule, and it is closely linked to the Legitimacy legdislation concept of political obligation, which asks why citizens should obey the government. In modern def. discussions, legitimacy focuses less on moral reasons for obedience and more on understanding why people choose to obey a specific government. This shifts the debate from philosophy to sociology, as tied to it examines the conditions and processes that make people view authority as rightful and maintain political political stability. obligation  how philosophers Legitimacy is the process by which power becomes authority, meaning that when a government is see legitimacy seen as legitimate, its commands are binding. Philosophers tend to see legitimacy as a moral vs principle, focusing on why governments should be obeyed, while political scientists see it as a how political sociological phenomenon, focusing on why people actually obey a government, regardless of how it Max Nebers' gains power. scientists do 3 types of Max Weber contributed significantly to the understanding of legitimacy, classifying three types of authority authority that explain how legitimacy is established: that explains Traditional Authority: This type of authority is rooted in long-standing customs, traditions, and how legitimacy "tErangine,."Isms established practices. It is considered legitimate because it has been accepted over time and is seen ns 8 is established established as "the way things have always been." People obey traditional authority because it is part of their practices. historical and cultural norms. Examples include monarchies or tribal leaders, where authority is often passed down through family lines or long-established practices. In modern times, traditional tradition- authority can still be seen in constitutional monarchies where respect for historical institutions plays refers to a significant role in governance. anything that based on personal Charismatic Authority: Charismatic authority is based on the personal qualities of a leader. The is handed leader's charm, vision, and ability to inspire loyalty and devotion are the sources of their power. Qualities ofd down from People follow a charismatic leader because they believe in the leader's exceptional abilities or divine leader the past to Pr qualities. This type of authority is not bound by tradition or law but by the leader's personal influence. Examples include leaders like Napoleon, Adolf Hitler, or Fidel Castro, who were able to gain power because of their strong personal appeal and ability to rally people to their cause. However, once the leader is gone, charismatic authority often struggles to survive, as it is so closely tied to the individual. Legal-Rational Authority: This form of authority is based on a system of established rules and laws that define how power is distributed and exercised. In legal-rational authority, power is derived from a person’s position or office within a bureaucracy or government, not from personal qualities or traditions. People obey the rules and leaders because they are legally and constitutionally bound. This is the most common form of authority in modern democratic states, where officials such as presidents, prime ministers, or judges derive their authority from the legal system and formal procedures. Legal-rational authority is more stable than the other forms because it is not dependent on any one individual or tradition. Weber’s classification of legitimacy remains influential, but it has limitations. It primarily focuses on Beethams how a political system is viewed as legitimate, without addressing situations where authority is challenged due to unpopular policies or a discredited leader. Additionally, Beetham (2013) criticized critique i Weber’s view that legitimacy is simply a "belief in legitimacy," arguing it overlooks how legitimacy is on Weber's actually created. This can allow the powerful to manipulate the perception of legitimacy through system manipulate the perception strategies like public relations. public relations. of legitimacy through strategies like Beetham suggests that power is only legitimate if three conditions are met. First, power must be He suggests exercised according to established rules, whether legal or informal. Second, these rules must be power is legitimate justified by the shared beliefs of both the rulers and the people. Third, legitimacy must be shown only 173 conditions through the consent of the governed, typically expressed through actions like voting. are met. These conditions highlight two key aspects of legitimacy. One is the role of elections and party competition, which allow people to express their consent. The other is the importance of constitutional rules that reflect the people’s views on how they should be governed.  While traditional Marxists dismissed legitimacy as a false concept, modern Marxists, influenced by Antonio Gramsci, recognized that capitalism relies on securing political support to maintain stability. Neo-Marxists like Habermas and Claus Offe analysed how capitalist societies manage legitimacy, focusing on democratic processes, social reforms, and party competition. They argued, however, that it is difficult for capitalist systems to legitimize themselves because of inherent inequalities in power. Habermas, in his book Legitimation Crisis (1973), identified tensions between the capitalist system’s Habermas's need for profit and the increasing demands for social welfare and equality. As democratic rights Legitimation expanded, people demanded more government intervention, which increased taxes and public crisis-capitalist spending. This could harm capitalist profit-making and create a crisis. Habermas believed that democracies faced crisis balancing capitalist democracies would struggle to satisfy both popular demands for welfare and the needs of welfare demands a profit-driven market, leading to a legitimation crisis. 8 profit needs. Similarly, the concept of government overload emerged in the 1970s, with thinkers like Anthony King and Richard Rose noting that governments were overwhelmed by competing demands from Gov. overload theory politicians, parties, and pressure groups. This made it hard for governments to function effectively, - Gov. struggled to manage as they became too reliant on special interest groups. Some thinkers believed this could only be competing demands from various groups addressed by reducing the role of government. The rise of the New Right in the 1980s was a response to these legitimacy and overload crises. The Promoted free New Right pushed for individualism, free markets, and reduced state intervention, challenging the markets & expanding welfare state. This shift in values led to a political culture that prioritized competition and reduced 904. to counter welfare individual responsibility, replacing the earlier focus on social justice and welfare rights. expansion A fiscal crisis of the welfare state occurs when the government's spending on social programs grows, but it coincides with an economic recession that reduces tax revenues. fiscal crisis on welfare state occurs when got spending on social programs grows, but it Legitimation crises can lead to even more serious consequences. When a government loses public coincides with an 'Eitetison support and can't fix the situation through policy changes or leadership changes, its legitimacy can economic recession that reduces even more collapse. This may lead to repression or even revolution. tax revenues. serious. revolution While reforms are gradual changes within a system, a revolution is a dramatic, often violent, reforms are transformation that completely changes the political system. Revolutions have shaped the modern gradual, revolut world, such as the American Revolution (1776), which created an independent republic; the French are violentstramat. Revolution (1789), which advanced democratic ideals; and the Russian Revolution (1917), which inspired other revolutions like those in China (1949), Cuba (1959), Vietnam (1975), and Nicaragua revolutions have shaped modern (1979). The Eastern European Revolutions (1989-1991) linked revolution with the pursuit of world: American,French, democracy. Russian Revolutions may not always lead to the changes expected. For example, the Arab Spring (2011) aimed for democracy but led to mixed outcomes. : The relationship between legitimacy and democracy has become a central topic in modern Democracy & discussions of political legitimacy. Many now view democratic legitimacy as the only meaningful Legitimacy form of legitimacy, meaning that a political organization’s legitimacy is often seen as inherently tied relationship to its democratic nature. Democracy is believed to promote legitimacy in several ways. Democracy promotes legit. Firstly, democracy fosters legitimacy through consent. Although citizens do not explicitly give their in 3 Ways consent to be governed, they implicitly do so each time they engage in the political process. This can be through voting, joining political parties, participating in protests, or other forms of political participation. Such engagement helps to bind government and the people, encouraging citizens to 11 Democracy fosters legitimacy through consent. Citizens implicitly give consent to be governed  view the rules of the political system as rightful and, consequently, to accept the authority of those in power. Secondly, democracy is a system of compromise, negotiation, and conciliation. In a democratic ④democracy is a system, rival groups and interests can find a way to coexist without resorting to violence. This system of comprom process helps ensure that power is widely distributed, giving various groups a political voice, negotiation 8 concilid. whether through elections, party competition, or other democratic mechanisms. In demo systems rival SOUPS can coexist. Thirdly, democracy operates as a feedback system, promoting long-term political stability by aligning government actions with public demands. Because democracy offers mechanisms for the peaceful removal of governments and changes in public policy, it helps to reduce political instability and potential conflicts like civil strife, rebellion, or revolution. Democracy operates as feedback system: Peaceful 3) However, some scholars have questioned the idea that legitimacy is intrinsically linked to removal of gov. 54888ion# democracy. While democratic societies tend to enjoy political stability and low levels of unrest, some democracy argue that factors other than democracy might explain this stability. One such factor is performance is linked to legitimacy, where a regime’s legitimacy is derived from its ability to deliver favourable economic and legitimacy.social outcomes. Many democratic societies, particularly those with advanced capitalist economies, succeed in maintaining stability by providing prosperity, which may be just as, if not more, important performance for maintaining legitimacy than the democratic processes themselves. legitimacy. Despite its prominent role in promoting legitimacy, democracy’s effectiveness in this regard may be Political waning. In many mature democracies, there is a growing sense of political disengagement and disillusionment. This phenomenon, sometimes referred to as a "democratic malaise," is reflected in disenchantment declining levels of political participation, such as lower voter turnout and decreasing membership in 8 disaffection. political parties. In addition to disengagement, new political forces are emerging that challenge or disrupt established new political democratic structures. The rise of populist and anti-establishment movements, such as the election systems emerging that of Donald Trump and the growth of populist parties in Europe, highlights the increasing challenges dissatisfaction with traditional political systems. However, the relationship between populism and disrupt estdb. democracy is complex and remains a topic of debate. rise of populist & anti-establishment demo-structures. Relationship movements. Donald Trump & anti- The relationship between populism and democracy is debated. On one hand, populism is seen as a between democratic force because both populism and democracy share principles like popular sovereignty Populist parties populisms and majority rule. Some argue that populism can act as a corrective to democracy, giving voice to in Europe democracy groups that feel excluded from decision-making processes. Populist movements often rise when democratic systems fail to represent large sections of the public. However, populism can conflict with liberal democracy. Populists often believe that the will of the Will of people ☒Etihad people should have no constraints, which challenges democratic elements like individual and should have no constra. minority rights, the rule of law, and media freedom. Moreover, populism tends to view the people as lib dem. a homogeneous group and rejects political pluralism. Populist leaders often claim to speak for the people’s "true" interests, which can lead to the concentration of power in the hands of a single Pills leader, resembling authoritarian tendencies. Populism's rise in mature democracies can be linked to economic and social changes. Democracy has traditionally maintained legitimacy by ensuring broad political participation and counteracting capitalism’s inequalities, through systems like social protection. However, in recent decades, especially after the 2007–2009 financial crisis, growing inequality and the rise of neoliberalism have left many feeling politically excluded. Neoliberalism favours market-driven policies that benefit the Liberal democracy is a political regime in which a liberal commitment to limited government is blended with a'democratic' belief in popular rule. Key features 1) the right to rule is gained through success in regular & competitive elections, based on universal adult suffrage 2)constraints on government imposed by a constitution,institutional checks 8 balances 3) civil society wealthy, while globalization has increased competition and social divisions. These developments including d make some people feel that conventional political processes no longer work for them, making them private enterprise more open to populist messages. economy, independent trade non-demo While democracy is often seen as the only true basis for legitimacy, some non-democratic regimes Unions 82 regimes manage to survive with little public opposition, primarily through coercion and repression. However, free press. seek legibi. non-democratic regimes often seek legitimacy in addition to using force. There are three main ways in addition they do this: to using Elections: Even in non-democratic systems, regimes may hold rigged or non-competitive elections to force, in create the appearance of popular support and to encourage citizens to accept the regime. 3 Ways: Performance Legitimacy: Non-democratic regimes may gain legitimacy by providing economic elections benefits like improved living standards, public order, and healthcare. For example, communist performance leg regimes like China focus on economic growth to maintain support. ideological leg. Ideological Legitimacy: Some regimes use ideology to justify their rule, such as Marxism-Leninism in communist states or religious principles in countries like Saudi Arabia. However, when these strategies fail, non-democratic regimes may resort to harsher methods or collapse due to popular uprisings. WEEK 3 Democracy has been the subject of much debate, largely due to confusion over its meaning. The term originates from ancient Greece, where "kratos" means power or rule, so democracy literally Estate:*: means "rule by the people," with "the people" initially referring to the poor or the many. However, this simple definition doesn't fully capture the complexity of the term. Over time, democracy has over time meaning become so widely praised that its specific meaning has become unclear. As Bernard Crick put it, has become democracy is "the most promiscuous word in the world of public affairs," often used as a positive unclear term for any system of rule. Bernard Crick-most promiscuis word different ways The word "democracy" has been given many different meanings over the years. Some see it as a people see system where the poor and disadvantaged rule, while others view it as a form of government where democracy people rule directly, without politicians. It has also been used to describe a society based on equal opportunity and merit, as opposed to hierarchy and privilege. Democracy is often linked to systems aimed at reducing social inequalities through welfare and redistribution. It is also seen as a decision- making process based on majority rule, a system that protects minority rights by limiting the power of the majority, and a method for filling public offices through competitive elections. Additionally, it is considered a government that serves the interests of the people, regardless of their level of political participation. A clearer way to understand democracy is through Abraham Lincoln's famous phrase from the Linton's phrase Gettysburg Address: "government of the people, by the people, and for the people." This that helps emphasizes that democracy connects government to the people, but there are various ways this understand connection can be made. This leads to three important questions about democracy: Who exactly are democracy "the people"?2)In what ways should they rule?3)And how far should popular rule extend? 1) 3 important questions yetidetashein One of the key ideas in democracy is political equality, which means that political power should be about dem. demi's spread as evenly as possible. However, the question of who constitutes "the people" is more Political equalitycomplex. While it might seem thatI"the people" refers to everyone in a country, in practice, political participation has always been limited. Historically, ancient Greek democracy was restricted to male ↓ 1)Who exactly are/the people" restriction of Greek democracy Political exuality means an equal distribution of political powers influence. It's the core principle of democracy.  Types Of democracies: 1) Direct 2)Representative 3) Liberal 4/Totalitarian citizens, excluding women, slaves, and foreigners. In many modern democratic systems, restrictions modernday have also existed, such as property qualifications or the exclusion of women and minorities, which restrictions continued in some countries well into the 20th century. Even today, children and certain groups, like the mentally ill or imprisoned criminals, are excluded from political participation. I "The people" can be understood in different ways. In one view, "the people" are a single unified → Who are - group, with common interests, leading to a model of democracy that focuses on the collective will. the people Alternatively, democracy can be understood as majority rule, where decisions are made by the largest group, which can sometimes lead to the "tyranny of the majority." There’s also the question of where democracy should operate. While nationalism tends to define "the people" in national terms, ideas like local or cosmopolitan democracy suggest that democracy could exist at smaller or global levels. When we consider how the people should rule, the two main forms of democracy are direct 2 main forms ofden: 2)democracy and representative democracy. In direct democracy, people participate directly in i) direct how the decision-making, for example, through referendums or mass meetings. Representative democracy, 2) representative people should on the other hand, involves citizens voting to choose leaders who will make decisions on their rule behalf. In both cases, voting is central because it allows citizens to hold politicians accountable. There are also forms of government where the people rule only in name, as in "totalitarian democracies." These regimes, like those under Mussolini or Hitler, claimed to represent the people, totalitarian but in reality, power was concentrated in the hands of a dictator who decided what was best for the people. Such systems show the tension between popular participation and rule in the public interest, democracy as seen in representative democracies that limit public involvement to voting, fearing the public may not have the wisdom to govern effectively. Finally, the question of how far democracy should extend involves considering what decisions the ⇒people should make and where individual freedoms should be protected. In some views, democracy differs howfar should only regulate political life, allowing individuals to pursue their private interests without democracy interference. This is often linked to liberal individualism, where democracy is seen as creating laws radical dem­ should end for the community while respecting individual liberty. In contrast, radical democracy sees democracy ocracy as applying to all areas of life, not just politics. Socialists, for example, argue that economic and social life should also be democratic, meaning people should have a say in decisions that affect them in workplaces and even in the home. For these thinkers, democracy is about broad participation and equality, extending beyond just politics into social and economic spheres. how should Direct democracy is a system where citizens engage directly and continuously in government 1)Direct people rule decisions. It eliminates the separation between the government and the people, ensuring that the demot people themselves make the rules. Historically, this was seen in ancient Athens through mass seen in ancient meetings, and in modern times, it can be seen in the use of referendums. The benefits of direct democracy are clear: it increases citizens' control over their lives, helps them become more Athens politically aware and informed, and ensures that decisions are legitimate because people are directly ACHO involved in making them. In this sense, direct democracy fulfils the ideal of popular self-government, benefits where citizens are active participants in shaping political decisions. On the other hand, representative democracy is a more indirect form of democracy, where the What Is 2) people participate in government by electing representatives who make decisions on their behalf. In Repre. representative this system, participation is limited to voting periodically, and the public does not directly govern but selects those who will do so. The strengths of representative democracy lie in its practicality—it's democracy more feasible in larger societies than direct democracy, which can be challenging to implement on a strenghtsof this system 4)Totalitarian dem. * There are also models of dem built on the principle of gov. for the people'which allows little scope for public particip. of any kind, direct or indirect. such are totalitarian democracies whic is an absolute dictatorship that masquerades as a democracy, based on the leader's claim to a monopoly of ideological wisdom wide scale. It also allows for a division of labour, where experts and educated politicians handle decision-making, reducing the burden on ordinary citizens. Representative democracy can help maintain stability by distancing citizens from everyday politics, making it easier to compromise on contentious issues. Plebiscitary, a form of democratic rule thatoperates through a link between the rulers & the ruled Plebiscitary democracy is a form that blends these two models, offering a direct link between rulers democracy and the ruled through referendums or plebiscites. While it allows the public to directly voice their Demagogues views on political issues, it can also open the door to manipulation by political leaders. Demagogues exploit might exploit popular emotions and prejudices, turning plebiscites into tools for populist leaders to popular secure their power under the guise of democracy. This criticism suggests that plebiscitary emotions f democracy, while it may seem direct, can sometimes be distorted into a system where the leader’s prejudices influence outweighs genuine popular participation, giving way to a form of mass acclamation that risks devolving into dictatorship. Democracy is often seen as a single, clear concept, especially in Western societies where it usually means a system of regular elections with universal voting rights. This is sometimes referred to as "liberal democracy." However, there are various theories or models of democracy, each with its own odels view of what constitutes popular rule. These models show the different ways democracy can be of democracy understood and justified. Even within liberal democracy, there are different interpretations. Four key models of democracy are: Classical democracy is based on the political system of Ancient Greece, particularly in Athens, where 1)Classical direct democracy allowed citizens to participate directly in decision-making. This form of democracy is often seen as the ideal model of popular participation. Athenian citizens were highly involved, democracy attending meetings of the Assembly and holding public office. However, this democracy had based on political significant limitations. Only free, Athenian-born men over 20 could participate, excluding slaves, system in women, and foreigners. Additionally, Athenian democracy was made possible by slavery and the confinement of women, which allowed men to focus on politics. Despite its limitations, the idea of Ancient Greece direct democracy has influenced modern practices like town meetings in the USA, communal Explains how assemblies in Switzerland, and referendums. the political system in Ancient 2 Limited Limited or "protective" democracy emerged. in the 17th and 18th centuries as a way to protect Greece was or protective citizens from government overreach, rather than encouraging active participation in politics. Early democracy liberal thinkers focused on maximizing individual liberty and preventing government from becoming emerges to too powerful. John Locke argued that voting rights were needed to protect natural rights, especially protect property, from government interference. Locke, however, believed only property owners should cigtizovens. ofver romreach vote. 111. i.. , Over time, the idea of universal suffrage was advanced by thinkers like Jeremy Bentham, who John Locke's argued that voting should ensure "the greatest happiness for the greatest number." citizens participate through voting in argument In protective democracy, citizens participate mainly through voting in regular elections. The goal is elections to ensure that the government remains accountable to the people. Political equality is seen in terms of equal voting rights, and power is limited by checks and balances, such as separating the executive, portical legislature, and judiciary. Basic freedoms, like free speech and protection from arbitrary arrest, are equality is also protected. Ultimately, protective democracy aims to give citizens the freedom to live as they seen in choose and is compatible with laissez-faire capitalism, where individuals are responsible for their equal voting own economic and social well-being. This model has appealed to classical liberals and modern rights, power supporters of the New Right. limited by checks aims to give citizens the freedom to 8 balances. livesthey choose  3) Developmental democracy focuses on growth 8 development of individuals 8 communities rather than protecting Developmental democracy focuses on the growth and development of individuals and communities, individual rather than just protecting individual rights. A key figure in this approach is Jean-Jacques Rousseau, rights. who argued that true freedom comes from citizens actively participating in shaping their community. For Rousseau, people are "free" only when they contribute directly to the decisions of their society, Rousseau's which goes beyond traditional electoral democracy. viewpoint Rousseau criticized the English system, claiming that citizens were only free when voting but were enslaved afterward because they had no control over decisions. Rousseau critiolves english system He also introduced the concept of the "general will," which represents the true, selfless desires of Ageneral will" individuals for the common good. By following the general will, people are acting in their own true interest. For Rousseau, developmental democracy required both political and economic equality, ensuring that no one was too rich or too poor to control their own fate. Rousseau’s theories influenced the idea of participatory democracy, especially in the 1960s and Roussedusides 1970s with New Left thinkers. This type of democracy values a "participatory society," where all influenced the citizens contribute to decisions that affect their lives, helping them achieve self-development. It participatory promotes openness, accountability, and decentralization in all areas of society, including the family, democracy workplace, and local community. The idea of "grass-roots democracy" means that political power should be at the lowest level possible. "grassroots democracy" However, Rousseau's idea of distinguishing between citizens' "true" will (selfless) and their "felt" will (selfish) has been criticized. The concern is that if the general will can't be directly known, someone may claim to define it, potentially leading to a "totalitarian democracy." Amoderatefor A more moderate form of developmental democracy, compatible with liberal ideas, was developed of developmental John Stuart democracy was by John Stuart Mill. Mill believed democracy helps people grow and develop their abilities. By Mill argumentsparticipating in politics, citizens improve their understanding and sensibilities. He argued for developed by extending the right to vote to all, except illiterate people, and for including women. He also John Stuart Mill. advocated for strong local authorities to give more opportunities for public office. Min saw However, Mill also saw dangers in democracy. Like other liberals, he worried about the "tyranny of the majority," where individual rights and minority opinions could be oppressed. Mill was concerned dangers that democracy could suppress debate and intellectual life, leading to conformity. He believed that in democracy democracy should involve reasoned discussion, as seen in deliberative democracy and parliamentary democracy. Deliberative democracy emphasizes reasoned debate to create legitimate political outcomes. It can 4)Deliberativehappen at small, face-to-face gatherings (micro deliberation) or in the wider public sphere through democracy media, public debates, and lobbying (macro deliberation). Deliberation is democratic when all affected citizens can participate freely and equally. Supporters argue that it helps citizens understand different viewpoints and align policymaking with the public interest. Critics, however, supporters say that it often favours well-educated and persuasive individuals, leading to exclusion and vs inequality. critics idea of"Peoplefy" The term "people's democracy" refers to the democratic models inspired by Marxist ideas, particularly those seen in Soviet-style regimes after World War II. Unlike liberal democracies, which de,ocra Parliamentary Marxists saw as protecting capitalist interests, Marxists believed in the idea of democracy aimed at refers to demo. achieving social equality through collective ownership of wealth (originally referred to as "social democracy models inspired democracy"). They distinguished this from "political" democracy, which they saw as only a surface- def by Marxists level equality. Marxists believed in ided of democracy-aimed at achieving social ideas ↓ equality through conective ownership of wealth Parliamentary democracy is a form of democratic rule that operates through a popularly elected deliberative assembly, which mediates between government & the people. Democracy, in this sense,means responsible 8 representative gov  For Marx, the overthrow of capitalism was necessary for true democracy to emerge. He believed Marx thought that after this, a transitional period known as the "revolutionary dictatorship of the proletariat" the overthrow would lead to a fully communist society. Marx admired the Paris Commune of 1871, which was an of capitalism early example of direct democracy, for its potential to represent a new form of democracy. is necessary for true Rosa luxemburgRosa Luxemburg, a key Marxist thinker, critiqued the centralized control of power in Lenin’s model. She believed the Bolshevik party's approach to democracy was overly authoritarian and would lead demo to critique on emerge to despotism. She argued that a broadly based democratic system, not a tightly controlled party, was centralized non of necessary for true socialist transformation. power in In practice, the democratic model in Soviet Russia followed Lenin’s ideas more than Marx's. Lenin Lenins models. Lenin's appro believed that the Communist Party, as the "vanguard of the working class," should guide the revolution and represent the interests of the proletariat. This became the basis for "Leninist 8 critics democracy," where the party made decisions on behalf of the working class. However, some Marxists, like Luxemburg, criticized Lenin’s approach, arguing it led to the party replacing the working class and ultimately concentrating power in the hands of a leader. Leninist Democracy: A form of democracy where the communist party, organized through "democratic centralism," represents the proletariat’s interests. Leninist democracy Democracy in practice continues to be a topic of debate, with particular attention given to how democracy works in reality and what "democratization" actually involves. The widespread global acceptance of liberal democracy as a model has led to considerable discussions on its meaning. Liberal democracy is an indirect and representative form of democracy, where political office is Liberal demo. _ earned through elections based on formal political equality. It is founded on competition and Lie b ral electoral choice, achieved through political pluralism, tolerance of diverse beliefs, and the existence of conflicting social philosophies and rival political movements and parties. A defining feature of liberal democracy is the clear distinction between the state and civil society, feature of lib. which is maintained through autonomous groups and interests and the capitalist organization of dem. is clear economic life. It also provides protection for minorities and individuals by allocating basic rights that distinction safeguard them from the majority’s will. However, there is ongoing disagreement about whether between state liberal democracy truly ensures a fair and healthy dispersal of political power or if democratic 8 civil society processes bring about long-term benefits. Critics ask if political equality can exist alongside economic inequality and if the system itself is self-defeating in some ways. These debates give rise to different interpretations of liberal democracy, each advanced by various Interpretations schools of thought. These include pluralism, which emphasizes the importance of diversity and the Of liberal ) distribution of political power; elitism, which argues that power is concentrated in the hands of a few; corporatism, which suggests that various societal groups play a significant role in the political democracy: process; the New Right, which critiques state intervention and advocates for free-market principles; 1) elitism and Marxism, which critiques capitalism and advocates for a fundamental transformation of the political and economic systems. These differing perspectives reflect the complexity and ongoing 2) corporatism controversy over how democracy is practiced and whether it truly fulfils its promise of equality, fairness, and justice. 3) New right 41 Marxism traces# The idea of pluralism, which can be traced back to early liberal thinkers like Locke and Montesquieu, was more fully developed by James Madison in *The Federalist Papers*. Madison feared that puralism unchecked democracy could lead to majoritarianism, where the majority could overpower individual rights and property. To address this, he argued that a variety of groups and interests should have a political voice to maintain stability and order. Madison proposed a system of government that  Madisonian divided power, allowing different groups to compete for influence. This approach is known as "Madisonian democracy," where constitutional protections for minorities help resist majority rule. democracy PluralismPluralist democracy, sometimes used interchangeably with liberal democracy, is a system where organized groups and interests play a key role in expressing popular demands and ensuring a Pluralist responsive government. It requires a broad distribution of political power among competing groups, democracy accountability of group leaders to their members, and a neutral government with multiple access points for groups. Robert Dahl, a leading modern pluralist, studied the distribution of power in New Haven, Connecticut, and concluded that while the privileged held more power, no elite group could Robert Dha completely dominate the political process. He coined the term "polyarchy" to describe rule by the many, rather than by all citizens. studies coined the Challenges Despite its strengths, pluralism faces challenges. One concern is that Madison’s system may have term been designed to limit democracy and protect property, preventing the majority from gaining pluralism political power. Another issue is "pluralist stagnation," where powerful groups create gridlock, "polyarchy" faces making government ineffective. Additionally, the concentration of economic resources in the hands of a few can lead to political power being concentrated in those same few, which undermines the critique pluralist ideal. This critique aligns with Marxist views, and has led to the development of neo fits with pluralism, which addresses these concerns. LITISM Marxist Elitism emerged as a critique of democratic and egalitarian ideas, arguing that political power is views " always concentrated in the hands of a privileged minority, or elite. Classical elitists like Vilfredo leading to Pareto, Gaetano Mosca, and Robert Michels believed that democracy was a delusion, as society is how it emerged development always divided into two classes: the rulers and the ruled. Mosca argued that in every society, a classical elitist thinkers Of neo-Plural.cohesive minority will control the majority, while Pareto distinguished between two types of rulers: "foxes" who use cunning and "lions" who rely on force. Michels introduced the concept of the "iron law of oligarchy," suggesting that even in democratic organizations, power tends to concentrate in Pareto 2 types of the hands of a few dominant leaders. rulers:toxess Modern elitist thinkers, like C. Wright Mills, highlighted the gap between the democratic ideal and lions the reality of elite rule. Mills, in *The Power Elite* (1956), argued that the USA is controlled by a "power elite" made up of big business, the military, and political leaders. These elites control key decisions, especially in defence, foreign policy, and economics. According to Mills, liberal democracy in the USA is largely a facade. Some elite theorists, however, suggest that a degree of democratic accountability can coexist with corruptive elite rule. Competitive elitism, also known as "democratic elitism," argues that while elites hold power, they compete with one another, and the public can choose which elite group will govern. "democrative" Joseph Schumpeter’s model of democracy, outlined in *Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy* elitism" (1942), reflects this view, stating that democracy is a process where elites compete for the people's vote. This model suggests that while voters cannot directly change who holds power, they can influence which elite group rules. 2)CORP­ The concept of elitism refers to the idea that power is concentrated in the hands of a minority, ORATISM which can either be seen as an unchangeable fact of society (classical elitism) or a more critical, scrutinized feature of political systems (modern elitism). "4 , Corporatism originated in Fascist Italy with the idea of a "corporate state," where both managers and workers were integrated into government processes. In modern terms, this concept evolved neo-corporatism into *neo corporatism* or *liberal corporatism*, where government works directly with liberal-corporal. organizations such as employers' groups, unions, and state officials to shape policy. This model  became common in post-World War II countries like Sweden, Norway, and the Netherlands, as governments began managing the economy and providing a wide range of public services. In neo corporatism, certain economic groups are given privileged access to policymaking, creating a "tripartite" system where the state, employers, and unions negotiate directly with one another. Some see this as a form of functional representation, where individuals' interests are better represented through their groups than through competitive elections. However, others argue that corporatism threatens democracy. This is because only certain "insider" groups, with direct access to government, have a voice, while "outsider" groups are excluded. Moreover, corporatism can benefit the state by using peak associations (government-recognized groups representing workers or businesses) to maintain control over economic interests and suppress radical demands. Lastly, because policymaking happens through negotiations rather than elected assemblies, it can undermine parliamentary democracy, as powerful interest groups exert influence without public accountability. 3) NEW The New Right emerged in the 1970s and criticized democratic politics for leading to "democratic overload," which refers to the paralysis of the political system caused by too many competing Right groups and electoral pressures. One key criticism was of corporatism, which New Right theorists criticised viewed as problematic because it gives too much power to interest groups. These groups make democratic demands on the government for higher pay, subsidies, and protection, which leads to increased politics forstate intervention and economic stagnation. leading to gov. overload The New Right also criticized the electoral process, arguing that it encourages politicians to make unrealistic promises to win votes, leading to economic problems. Voters are attracted by promises of criticism of more public spending, but the cost is spread across the population through higher taxes. Politicians corporatism try to outdo each other with more generous promises, which results in inflation and a tax burden criticism of that harms businesses and growth. The New Right believes that democracy should primarily protect electoral processes against arbitrary government rather than drive social change. They see democracy as beneficial in moderation but harmful when taken to excess. The Marxist view of democracy is based on class analysis, arguing that political power is linked to 4)Mar economic power. Marxists believe that power isn't just about voting rights or lobbying but is shaped by who owns wealth and controls resources. They argue that liberal democracies, which claim to XISM offer political equality, are actually controlled by a ruling class that owns most of the wealth. This viewefdem. creates a conflict between political equality and the social inequality generated by capitalism. based on Marxists criticize pluralist democracy by saying that power is concentrated in the hands of a few, and class analysis this concentration is rooted in the unequal distribution of economic resources, particularly the believe power iscontrol of production. This view is similar to the elitist critique, which also suggests that power is shaped by held by a small group, but while elitists see power coming from various sources (like education, who owns wealth, or political connections), Marxists emphasize the importance of economic control. Some wealth modern Marxists, especially Eurocommunists, have moved away from the idea of revolution and critique of now support a peaceful, democratic path to socialism, blending Marxism with liberal democratic liberal 8 principles. pluralist cosmopolitan democracies The idea of cosmopolitan democracy has gained attention due to globalization, which has shifted democracy decision-making power from national governments to international organizations. Supporters believe that democracy should adapt to this new global reality. There are two main models for how cosmopolitan democracy could work. One model suggests creating a world parliament to oversee two main global decision-making, holding international organizations like the UN and IMF accountable. This models to how would involve a multilevel system where no single body holds ultimate power. Another model It would work Global civil society refers to a realm in which transnational non-gov. groups associations interact. These groups are typically voluntary 8 non-profit making  focuses on reforming existing international organizations and strengthening global civil society, particularly through non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and transnational social movements. However, there are significant challenges to cosmopolitan democracy. Powerful states may block Challenges to efforts to create global democratic institutions or ensure they remain ineffective. Additionally, the cosmopolitan idea of global equality conflicts with the deep economic and political inequalities that exist today. democracy Critics argue that global institutions intended to ensure accountability would face a "democratic deficit," meaning they would lack true democratic legitimacy. Furthermore, while NGOs and social movements can influence global politics, they do not represent the public at large and lack formal democratic authority, making their claims of representing global democracy questionable. WEEK 4 Political ideology refers to a set of ideas that guide political action. These ideas help explain the 1891in existing political and social order, envision a better or different future society, and outline methods for bringing about political change. Ideologies are often shaped by values, beliefs, and goals, and they influence the way individuals or groups approach politics. Importantly, ideologies are not fixed; they evolve and interact with one another. They can overlap, change over time, and sometimes borrow elements from other political traditions or ideologies. The term "ideology" was first coined by the French philosopher Destutt de Tracy in 1796. De Tracy Tinney used it to describe a new "science of ideas"—or *idea-ology*—which sought to understand the origins and development of human thought. His ambition was for ideology to be seen as a legitimate Tray science, on par with biology or zoology. However, this idea of ideology as a science was not widely adopted. Instead, the term gradually took on a more political meaning, especially in the 19th his 901 century. The most influential shift in the term’s meaning came through the work of Karl Marx. Marx viewed Marx's ideology in a more critical way. He argued that ideologies were created by the ruling class to view on maintain their power and dominance. According to Marx, the ruling class not only controls the material resources of society but also controls the ideas and beliefs that shape society's ideology understanding of itself. In this way, ideologies serve to justify and perpetuate the existing social order, making the inequalities of society appear natural or unchangeable. Marx’s view of ideology centres on the concept of false consciousness, which suggests that the working class (the proletariat) is misled by the ruling class's ideas, preventing them from recognizing their exploitation. In his famous work, The German Ideology (1846), Marx and Engels stated, "The ideas of the ruling class are in every epoch the ruling ideas." In other words, the ideas of those in power dominate society because they control the means of producing knowledge, such as education and media. For Marx, these ideas were ideological because they obscured the reality of class struggle and exploitation. Marx did, however, distinguish his own theories from ideology. He believed that his analysis of society, based on materialism and class struggle, was scientific. In other words, he saw his ideas as Mffinguishes providing a true understanding of how society works, while ideologies were false or misleading. - his theories Over time, ideology became a broader concept, particularly in political discussions. It started to be from used as a way of criticizing rival political systems. In the 20th century, during the rise of totalitarian during rise regimes like fascism and communism, thinkers such as Karl Popper, J.L. Talmon, and Hannah Arendt ideology of began to argue that ideology could be dangerous. They viewed ideology as a form of social control, a totalitarianismsystem of thought that sought to monopolize truth and suppress alternative viewpoints. They critiques of ideology emerged  associated ideologies with rigid, dogmatic systems that promoted a particular worldview without tolerance for dissent. This critique of ideology emerged most strongly in the context of the Cold War, when fascist and communist ideologies were seen as a threat to political freedom. Popper, for example, argued that ideologies like fascism and communism were "closed" systems of thought that didn't allow for opposing views or flexibility. In contrast, he suggested that political systems like liberalism were “open” because they encouraged free debate, criticism, and the possibility of reform. According to this view, ideologies are restrictive, and their goal is often to ensure political conformity and obedience. A conservative view of ideology is also important. Michael Oakeshott, a prominent conservative conservative thinker, criticized the idea of political ideologies, arguing that they were abstract, rationalist systems that tried to impose order on the unpredictable nature of politics. From a conservative perspective, ideology human understanding of politics is limited, and ideologies attempt to provide overly neat or simplistic solutions to complex problems. Oakeshott argued that political action should not be guided by abstract ideals but by a pragmatic understanding of the world as it is—what he called “the art of the possible.” conservatives Conservatives generally reject the idea of subscribing to an ideology, preferring instead to emphasize tradition and pragmatism as guides to political behaviour. In their view, ideology’s reject idea of attempt to impose rigid systems of thought on political reality is both misguided and dangerous. ideology modern Despite the negative connotations that the term “ideology” has accumulated, the modern social- social scientific definition of ideology is more neutral. From this perspective, an ideology is understood as a scientific set of beliefs or a worldview that guides political behaviour and action. It is seen as a collection of definition ideas that are interrelated and serve to explain, justify, or challenge existing political, social, and economic conditions. of ideology In this sense, all political systems, whether liberal democracies or authoritarian regimes, can be seen all political as ideologies because they are based on a set of values and beliefs that guide political action. For systems example, liberalism, conservatism, socialism, fascism, and communism are all ideologies, as they are can be systems of ideas that guide political movements or systems. The key feature of ideologies in this seen as sense is that they provide not only an explanation of the world but also a prescription for how Ideological society should be organized and how political change should occur. In the mid-20th century, the relevance of ideology in Western politics was called into question, examples leading to the so-called “end of ideology” debate. This debate gained momentum after the collapse of fascism and communism in Europe and the increasing material prosperity of the West. Daniel Bell, in his book The End of Ideology (1960), argued that ideological conflict had become irrelevant because Western political parties were more focused on economic growth and material welfare than on deep ideological questions. According to Bell, in advanced capitalist societies, politics had become a matter of managing economic growth rather than choosing between radically different worldviews. Later, after the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union, Francis Fukuyama revived this idea, suggesting that liberal democracy had triumphed over all other ideologies. In his book The End of History and the Last Man (1992), Fukuyama argued that liberal democracy represented the final and most ideal form of government, and no alternative political system would arise to challenge it. The debate about whether politics can exist without ideology continues to be central to political theory. Some argue that ideologies are essential for giving meaning and direction to politics, while others believe that politics can exist without a rigid ideological framework. Those who support the "end of ideology" perspective believe that as societies become wealthier and more democratic, the need for radical ideologies diminishes. On the other hand, others argue that ideology remains a fundamental part of political life, as it shapes both the goals of political movements and the struggles over values, beliefs, and power. Political ideologies emerged during the transition from feudalism to industrial capitalism. The main political early ideologies—liberalism, conservatism, and socialism—were responses to the changes brought ideologies about by industrial society. A central issue in these ideologies was the conflict between capitalism emerged (an economic system based on private ownership and profit) and socialism (which advocates for during transition collective or state ownership of resources and wealth). from feudalismto The ideological divide between capitalism and socialism was especially marked after the 1917 industrial Russian Revolution, which created the first socialist state. This divide shaped much of 20th-century CAPITHISM international politics, particularly during the Cold War (1945–1990), when the capitalist West and the communist East (led by the Soviet Union) were in conflict. Though new ideologies, like feminism and green politics, emerged after the 1960s, the classical ideologies of liberalism, conservatism, and socialism have remained significant. They have been able to adapt to changing times, even as their boundaries sometimes blur. John Locke was an influential English philosopher, often considered a foundational figure in liberalism. His political ideas, developed during the English Revolution, supported the Glorious Revolution of 1688, which limited absolute monarchy and established a constitutional monarchy in Britain. Locke emphasized natural rights (life, liberty, and property) and argued for a representative government and religious toleration. His works, like Two Treatises of Government (1690) and A Letter Concerning Toleration (1689), had a significant influence on the American Revolution. Liberalism is one of the most important political ideologies, especially in the industrialized West, and Liberalism is often seen as the ideology that shaped the political landscape of capitalist societies. It is sometimes described as a meta-ideology, meaning that it is broad enough to incorporate a wide range of values, beliefs, and political ideas. Although liberalism did not fully emerge as a distinct political ideology until the early 19th century, its fundamental principles and theories were developed gradually over the preceding 300 years. Initially, liberalism reflected the aspirations of the rising industrial middle class, and ever since its early form, it has been closely associated with capitalism, with many arguing that they are intrinsically linked. Early liberalism primarily focused on political philosophy. In its beginnings, it was a reaction against early liberalism absolutism and feudal privilege, advocating for constitutional and, later, representative government. Thinkers like John Locke were instrumental in the development of liberal political ideas, especially in John Locke the areas of natural rights and individual freedoms. Locke argued that individuals have inherent, God -given rights to life, liberty, and property, which no government could infringe upon. His political ideas had a major influence on later political movements, particularly the American Revolution. In the 19th century, a more distinct liberal economic creed developed, which promoted laissez-faire economics—opposing any government interference in the market. This form of liberalism, often referred to as classical or 19th-century liberalism, focused on the belief that individuals should be free to thrive in a competitive market without state intervention.  key By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, however, the rise of industrialization and its associated rise of ideas social problems, such as poverty, inequality, and the rise of monopolies, led to the emergence of industratration social liberalism. This shift recognized the need for government intervention to address social