Political Sciences Summary PDF

Sunday, January 10, 2021 **Political Sciences Summary** Introduction to Politics \- [Politics as the art of government] Politics is only what concerns the state or government Traditional and restricted i.e. protests are not considered "political" \- [Politics as public affairs] Polit...

Sunday, January 10, 2021 **Political Sciences Summary** Introduction to Politics \- [Politics as the art of government] Politics is only what concerns the state or government Traditional and restricted i.e. protests are not considered "political" \- [Politics as public affairs] Politics is what concerns the state and public sphere Broad and flexible \- [Politics as power] Politics at work in every social interaction involving power [Hard power] \- By use/threat of force, manipulation, intimidation [Soft power] \- By promise of reward, creation of loyalty, power in numbers ^[The\ faces\ of\ power]^ \- Power as decision making \- Power as agenda setting \- Power as thought control \- [When is something a political act?] Look at location Is it a negotiation of power? Public vs. private life \- [Philosophical vs. empirical tradition of looking at reality] [Philosophical]: raises more normative/moral questions, not value free [Empirical]: describing, explaining, predicting, classifying political phenomena \- [Concepts vs. Models vs. Theories] [Concepts]: definitions [Models]: David Easton's Model of the 'Political System' [Theories]: Median Voter Theorem \- [Key features of a state] [Territory] \- Activities linked 1 Sunday, January 10, 2021 Defend territory Guard borders Exploit own resources ^[Sovereignty]^ \- [Internal]: state can make legal decisions within its territory \- [External]: state can be recognized by other states as sovereign \- States can voluntarily give up part of its sovereignty or be limited People \- (also **monopoly of legitimate use of force** and **rule of law)** **Rule of law:** state must uphold innate, inalienable, inviolable rights [People] \- Relatively permanent \- Legally recognized members with rights and responsibilities \- Collective entity \- State=territorial/political entity, Nation=cultural/political entity, Nation states=unification of people under territory - **Failed state**=country that has lost some of its control and is unable to fulfill the basic functions of a sovereign state - [Different theoretical approaches for why we have states] [Constitutional] \- Social contract between citizens and rules \- Main concern is with how the legitimacy of the state is established [Pluralist] \- The state regulates conflict and reconciles with competing interests [Conflict] \- The state regulates conflict but in a way that benefits the elite \- [How do states originate?] [Transformation] \- Gradual transformation of existing political units to nation states (Britain, France) [Unification] \- Unification of previously independent and dispersed political units (Germany) [Secession] \- Break up of independent political units (decolonization) \- [How do states develop? (Rokkan)] [State formation] \- Territorial consolidation and development of state institutions 2 Sunday, January 10, 2021 \- **Catalysts**: war (only states can organize/fund large armies) and capitalism (capitalism depends on the infrastructure of the state and is invested in it's success) [Nation building] \- Standardization of thought/culture [Mass democracy] \- Linkage between state and citizens [Welfare states] \- Redistribution \- [Is it still relevant to talk about states] Growing importance of supranational organizations, globalization BUT renewed nationalism, resurgence of bilateral diplomacy, and EU crises (Brexit) \- **Democracy**=political system in which government is based on a fair and open mandate from all qualified citizens (government by the people) \- [Procedural vs. substantive definitions of democracy] [Procedural]: \- **How** should a democracy function? Focus on organization, procedures \- [Thin vs. thick] [Thin]: **participation** pillar of democracy [Thick]: **constitutional** pillar of democracy (constitutional rights and civil liberties) [Substantive] \- **What** should a democracy do? Focus on goals and effectiveness \- [Polyarchy] Thick understanding of democracy Elected officials Free and fair elections Inclusive voting rights Right to run for office Freedom of speech/expression Citizens have access to alternative sources of info Freedom of association \- [Thick definitions of modern democracy] Regular, fair, competitive elections 3 Sunday, January 10, 2021 Representation of multiple parties Protected opposition Distribution of powers ^Individual\ rights\ and\ freedoms^ Rule of Law Diverse and independent media Protection of human rights \- [Direct vs. representative democracy] [Direct]: athenian, politicians were chosen by lottery \- Contemporary: referendums, e-democracy [Representative] \- [Liberal vs. illiberal democracies] [Liberal]: both participation and constitutional pillars are upheld [Illiberal]: participation pillar BUT restrictions on civil liberties, forms of oppression \- [What is not a democracy?] Dictatorships disguised as democracies Elections are not free and fair, elections are not competitive \- [What are the requisites of a sustainable democracy?] [Modernization] \- Socio economic development, technological change, and shift from materialism---\> post materialism supports democracy [Quality of institutions] [Political culture (social trust)] \- [3 waves of democratization] 1st: 1826-1930 Western Europe, North America 2nd: WW2-1970 Germany, decolonization 3rd: 1974-present Portugal, democratic transition in Latin America, Asia Pacific and Eastern Europe - [What are the contemporary challenges to democracy?] Representative democracy is reinventing itself; transparency, better access More and better involvement of ordinary citizens Expert involvement (technocrats) \- [Signs of a 'crises of democracy'?] Decreasing trust in politics/politicians Decreasing political participation 4 Sunday, January 10, 2021 Growing success of radical right/left group Young people turning away from democracy \- **Ideology**: empirical explanation of the political world, normative prescription for how political life could be and ought to be --- a plan of action \- [Criticism to ideology:] Marxist claims that ideology is a set of fundamentally false set of beliefs used by the elite as means of control \- [Liberalism] Roots in 18th C, very old, started as a challenge to divine right the church, aristocracy and the feudal system Spread with industrialization, urbanization Natural right is priority [Negative liberty:] liberty from [Positive liberty]: liberty to ** Classical/Neo-liberalism** \- Minimal state, laissez-faire, privatization, deregulation ** Modern/Social liberalism** \- State can ensure freedoms, but shouldn't have too many barriers against citizens Optimistic view of mankind \- [Conservatism] Reaction against economic and political changes at end of 18 C Desire to conserve traditional social order Functionalism: clear social hierarchy Free market economy Pessimistic view of human nature \- [Christian democracy] Natural law and subsidiarily Natural law is the basis for social conduct and follows natural groups (family, church, etc.) Protection of the weak and poor \- [Socialism] Origins in 19th C, class struggle Reaction against capitalism Represents and works to protect working class Optimistic view of human nature Equality of opportunity ** Social democracy** 5 Sunday, January 10, 2021 \- peaceful reform through evolution and welfare state \- Mixed economy; some control by gov. some by people ** Communism** \- radical reform through revolution \- Almost all economic activity under state regulation \- [Nationalism] [Cultural nationalism]: based on shared language, religion, ethnicity, etc. so exclusions apply [Civic nationalism]: based on shared set of values, civil loyalties, so you can always become apart of the nation if you adopt the values \- [Feminism] 1st wave: 1830-1930 equal legal and political rights but not much substantive change 2nd wave: 1960-70 cultural and anthropological; general liberation 3rd wave: 1990s-today continues critique (wages, representation) [Contemporary critiques to 2nd and 3rd waves] \- Intersectional critiques and politically ambivalent (contradictory) \- [Green political thought] Late 1960s, post materialist ethos, sustainable development, decentralization **Environmentalism**: more accommodating to existing social order, works good with ideologies, incremental change **Ecologism**: radical, discontent with status quo, state must regulate the transition, works better with socialism - [Populism] Political demagogues; appeal to prejudice and emotions Thin ideology Pure people (one united voice) vs. corrupt elite (parasitic) --- usually the leader is apart of the elite though Power should be given back to the pure people \- Bell (1960s) --- **Fukuyama** (1989) predicted that the end of the cold war would exhaust the appeal of ideologies because the world would convergence on liberal democracy But we are now seeing a rise in ideology, religious fundamentalism, polarization \- **Political behavior:** political participation, action, influence Engage in two goals: **giving information** (to the government) and **exerting pressure** (on the government) - [Conventional participation] Top down; organized by government/political elites (voting) \- [Unconventional participation] Bottom-up; organized by participants with disruptive potential (strikes, protests) \- [Patterns of political behavior:] 6 Sunday, January 10, 2021 most people are not politically active conventional participation seems to be in decline expansion in forms of participation ^some\ people\ participate\ more\ than\ others^ \- SES \- **Civic Voluntarism model:** "because they can't (lack of skills/resources), because they don't want to, or because no one asked (not connected) \- **'doorstep response':** those with no opinion/knowledge will vote what first comes to mind - **Low information rationality:** 'gut feeling' for how to vote \- [Pressure groups/social movements] Both are in the civil society sphere Separate from state involvement, but aim to influence gov. Preform interest aggregation and articulation [Strategies (indirect/direct):] \- 1) try to get into the policy formation process early \- 2) and operate at the highest poss. level of gov. \- **Direct**: lobbying, potential for abuse \- **Indirect**: public campaigns/demonstrations, suing, mass/social media, international and multinational government (EU and UN) [Power determinants] \- [Internal group features] Income membership size, density (and recruitment), internal divisions (umbrella organizations, shadow groups), sanctions/disruptive potential, leadership \- [Political environment] Who is insider/outsider group? Public opinion, legitimacy, if PG/SM are aligned with parties, countervailing powers (Veto-group system theory) [Pressure groups] \- **Interest groups**: occupational (labor unions) - **Cause groups**: specific causes (cycling safety) - **Episodic groups:** politically active if the need arises \- **Fire brigade groups:** fight specific issues but dissolve when it is over \- **Political groups**: influence the wide range of public policies +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | | **Pressure** | **Social** | | | | | | | **groups** | **movements** | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | **Organization** | Formal | Loose | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Issues** | Narrow | Broad | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Participants** | Official members | Just share | | | | | | | | common goals/ | | | | identity | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Methods** | Closer to | Unconventional | | | | political action | | | government, | | | | | | | | direct strategies | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ \- If pressure groups become too powerful they can control policy 7 Sunday, January 10, 2021 [Social movements] \- Old vs. new social movements \- [Differences between social movements/pressure groups and political parties] ^Political\ parties\ want\ to\ become\ government,\ they\ compete\ in\ elections,\ and\ cover\ all\ policy\ areas^ - [Pluralism vs. corporatism] [Pluralism] \- Involves policy communities, networks and iron-triangles \- Based on free competition \- Depends on compromise (veto power) \- More open to change \- Opposite is mass society Mass society: without plurality, isolated/uprooted individuals, not integrated into community [Corporatism] \- Danger: groups not in the system may resort to direct action to be heard \- Groups are recognized, licensed or created by government \- More rigid \- Produce party binding policies +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | | **Pluralism** | **Corporatism** | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | **\# of lobby | Many, small | fewer, large | | groups** | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **power** | fragmented, fluid, | Concentrated and not | | | | domain specific | | | domain specific | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Relation to gov.** | No group with | Peak organizations | | | | have privileged | | | privileged access | access | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Relation between | Competition | Collaboration | | groups** | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Openness of | open to new groups | closed to new groups | | system** | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ \- **Social capita**l: trust, social norms and networks, three important components; Associations and networks Social trust (of gov. and fellow citizens) Notions of reciprocity (that your trust/goodwill will be reciprocated) **Democratic malaise**: falling election turnout and trust; cynicism caused by a decline in voluntary organizations The more social capital the more effective and efficient the democracy is \- **Political culture:** values/assumptions about gov. and politics, often implicit and acquired through political socialization National pride and service 8 Sunday, January 10, 2021 Social and political trust/cooperation Competence Political support ^Citizenship^ Alienation [4 types of political culture (]cognitive, affective, and evaluative dimensions) \- **Parochial**: (usually developing countries) low awareness, knowledge and involvement in politics \- **Subject**: (usually non-democracies) high awareness but low involvement, citizens are law abiding but not apart of decision making or exerting pressure on gov. \- **Participant**: (found in US, UK) high awareness, knowledge and involvement --- active participants - **Civic**: (the ideal political culture) stable mixture of passivity and activity (subject and participant culture) Citizens respect law, trust politics And participate Combination leads to stable democracy \- [Consequences of the shift from materialism ---\> post-materialism] Cognitive mobilization Replacement of class with social/cultural cleavages Increase of religious conflict More/new forms of political participation (new social movements) New political issues (environmentalism) \- [Political cleavages] **Reinforcing cleavages**: cleavages are laid on top of one another, making them potentially more effective (when people never experience diversity) **Cross cutting cleavages:** cleavages that are laid on top of one another reducing their capacity to divide (experiencing diversity) \- **Policies**: set of decisions made by gov. with the goal of steering public, economic and social life - **Cinderella elements:** policy makers deliberately leave their objectives vague in order to avoid controversy - [Types of policies] Regulative (economic, environmental) Distributive (education, roads) Redistributive (taxes) Constitutive (constitutional) \- [The policy making cycle] ** 1. Policy initiation: agenda setting** \- Movement from public agenda ---\> policy agenda (selection, reduction) 9 Sunday, January 10, 2021 \- [Traditional models for explaining how public agenda becomes policy agenda] Important, serious, real problems become policy Policies follow economic cycle (revolve around economic climate) ^Policies\ follow\ the\ political\ business\ cycle\ (dependent\ on\ the\ election\ cycle)^ \- From-below model: citizens put issue on agenda \- From-above model: governments/leaders put issue on agenda \- [Favorable conditions for agenda setting]: power of numbers, positional power, framing, clear communication, focusing events, media attention ** 2. Policy formulation** \- Policy options/solutions are elaborated --- an insider process \- [Technical rational phase:] set objective, analyze options, make choices Nodality: awareness raising (pictures on cigarette packs) Authority: forbidding behavior (shop owners punished for selling cigarettes to minors) Treasure: taxation (taxing cigarettes) Organization: infrastructure (cigarette machines equipped with ID scanners) Nudging: push in the right direction \- Progressive vs. conservative framing ** 3. Policy Adoption: decision making** \- Public officials decide which policy options will be adopted Either a decision or a non decision \- [Three decision making models] [Rational Model] \- Utility maximization; cost benefit analysis; ranking effectiveness/efficiency \- But assumes all information is available, can be processes, and effects can be thoroughly assesses [Incremental model] \- "muddling through", trial and error process \- Minimizing risk by taking one step at a time \- Policies come from marginal changes done to existing policies; no big change \- But unable to deal with emergencies, unable to explain fundamental changes [Mixed Scanning model] \- The compromise between rationalism and incrementalism [Belief system model] \- Policies reflect what decision-makes believe \- Deep-core beliefs: ideology 10 Sunday, January 10, 2021 \- Near-core beliefs: policy preferences \- Secondary beliefs: visions on implementation ** 4. Policy implementation** \- Putting it into practice \- Top-down: top bureaucrats decide, lower levels implement (uniformity, control) \- Bottom-up: street level bureaucrats have the knowledge to implement effectively (flexibility) ** 5. Policy Evaluation** \- Output vs. outcome \- Effects have to be assessed, evaluated (policy termination, feedback) \- [Types of evaluation] 3Es: how is it effecting the economy, how efficient and effective is it? Process Client satisfaction \- But true evaluation is rare---policy makers don't want to admit mistakes \- [Difference between bureaucrats and politicians] **Selection**: appointed vs. elected **Term of office:** long term vs. short term **Level of expertise:** expert vs. lay (doesn't have to be qualified/expert on the knowledge) **Rationals**: professional (efficiency) vs. political (getting reelected) **Primary orientation**: internal (organization running smoothly) vs. external (convincing citizens) **Measure for success:** following the rules vs. public opinion **Numbers**: many vs. few \- [Functions of bureaucracies] Administration Policy advice (but reversal of power) Ensure stability (but spoils system) \- [3 Models for how bureaucracies are organized] ** Model 1: Weber's ideal type bureaucracy** \- hierarchy, functionalism, neutrality, permanent appointment, legalism ** Model 2: New Public Management** \- Decentralization and departmentalization \- Big government is bad government \- Skeletal state \- Privatization 11 Sunday, January 10, 2021 ** Output oriented** \- Customer oriented \- Attaining goals is more important that strictly following the rules \- Performance and quality management \- [Sources for bureaucratic power] Strategic position, logistical power, status Problem: lack of accountability, corruption, maladministration \- [Control mechanisms for bureaucracies] Accountability, Politicization (alternation of power), Counter bureaucracies \- **Political party**: like minded organization that seek political power to implement goals through public policy - [ Caucus parties] Origins in 19th C (oldest) Elite parties (led by a few) with loose alliances \- [Mass parties] Origins in early 20th C Large membership, bureaucratic, centralized, hierarchy Reliance on membership \- [Catch-all parties] Origins in 1970 Try to appeal to a wide variety of social groups/interests Declining role of members, weaker ideological ties - [Cartel parties] End of 20th C Collaborate with each other for state resources Away from society and towards state These different parties are an **evolution of party development**! modern version of caucus parties with "career politicians" functioning as the "elite" \- [Electoral-Professional Parties] End of 20th C Professional experts replace activism and members --- career politicians "iron law of oligarchy" \- [Old vs. New left/right] Old: socio-economic issues (government intervention) New: post-materialistic values (gender, euthanasia, LBGTQ rights) \- [How to identify significant parties?] 12 Sunday, January 10, 2021 Based on number and size/strength of parties \- [One-party system] Non-democratic; no real opposition allowed ^China^ \- [Dominant party system] Legislature: one large, significant party dominates for a long time Government: limited alternation of power but still democratic India (Congress Party) Problem of loss of interest - [Two-party system] Legislature: two significant seats These are the different **party systems!** Government: one can govern with the other in opposition---alternation of power between the two The US \- [Multi-party system] Legislative: 3+ significant parties Government: coalition---partial alternation of power Belgium \- **Moderate pluralism:** 3-5 main parties which are moderate and compete for center ground - **Polarized pluralism:** 6+ main parties, tend to move towards the extremes because of overcrowding in the center - [How does party system effect government, political representation, party strategy and voters?] [Government] \- Two-party system= often one-party government \- Multi-party system= often coalition government \- Moderate pluralism= easier for coalitions [Political representation] \- Multi-party= better representation of different cleavages \- Moderate pluralism= perceived lack of choice [Party strategy] \- Multi-party= lower threshold for new parties [Effect on voters] \- High number of parties= lower voter turnout \- **Majority government:** government/coalition with at least 50%+ seats \- Coalition formation depends on particular political circumstances/election outcomes 13 Sunday, January 10, 2021 \- **Losers consent:** willingness of parties/supporters to accept the outcome of democratic elections (contributes to peaceful transfer of power) \- **Minimum winning coalition:** (Riker) coalition in which only those parties participate that are minimally necessary for a majority government --- no surplus parties **Minimum size coalition:** with narrowest possible parliamentary majority (whatever is closest to 50%) **Smallest number of parties**: opt for 2 parties rather than 3 --- whatever makes 50% faster **Minimal range coalition:** smallest ideological range **Minimal connected winning:** with closest neighbors \- **Minority government:** smaller than minimum winning coalition Effectiveness depends on ideological differences and how they work together \- **Oversized coalition:** larger than minimum winning coalition --- it has surplus parties Institutional reasons---depends on compromises \- **Grand coalitions:** oversized coalition that includes all parties or the largest of them Often seen in times of crises \- [One-party government vs. Coalition government] one-party: relatively stable, accountable, but more policy 'swings' Coalition: more unstable, but fewer policy 'swings' and more consensual/cautious \- **Arguments against parties:** involve conflict, represent sectional interest, are self interested and don't care about greater good \- **Arguments for parties:** represent group interests, competition and conflict is good, parties preform vital functions (interest articulation, voter mobilization...) \- [Iron Law of Oligarchy] Government by the few Leaders betray their organizations, using their position for their own interests \- **Intra-party democracy**: giving members a say, not one party leader; but many, limit terms of party leaders - [Preconditions for democratic elections] Free and fair, universal adult suffrage, secret ballot, impartial administration of voting and vote counting, free and equal access to the polls \- [System factors explaining voter turnout] Perceived importance of the election Electoral system leads to lower voter turnout ('my vote doesn't make a difference') Frequency of elections (election fatigue) Compulsory voting **Cosmetic democracy:** People are voting, but there are underlying problems that you don't see - people feel like they don't have power, and therefore tend to choose extreme parties to make up for this - [Individual factors explaining voter turnout] 14 Sunday, January 10, 2021 SES Socio-demographic Party identification ^Values\ and\ culture\ (habit---parents)^ Protest voting \- [Plurality majority voting vs. Proportional representation (]PR) \[both are types of voting/electoral systems\] [Plurality majority] \- Goal is to identify clear winner based on majority **- 1. Simple Plurality ('First past the post')** Country divide into small constituencies, one candidate per constituency is elected based on highest % of votes advantages: clear lines of political responsibility, simple, clear winner---\> stable gov. disadvantages: larger parties overrepresented, votes for losing candidates are wasted - **Block voting:** combines FPTP counting with multi-member districts (districts with 2+ elected representatives) **- 2. Second Ballot** In each constituency one candidate is elected, but there is a second round if majority (\>50%) isn't established the first round Advantages: simplicity, clear winner---\> stability Disadvantages: unfair to smaller, third parties, voter fatigue from second ballot **- 3. Alternative vote** [Proportional representation] \- Larger constituencies---in each one, multiple candidates are elected (multi-member districts) - Each party receives \# of seats as it won in votes --- perfect proportionality \- Electoral threshold to counter fragmentation/small parties = minimum % of the poll required to be elected (Belgium is 5%) **- 1. List PR system** Parties rank candidates in order of preference, and are elected in proportion to this Voters vote for party list Advantages: fair to all parties, better representation of traditionally disadvantaged groups in politics (women) Disadvantages: requires multi-member districts, possible fragmentation, no clear winner, party leaders given lots of power **- 2. Single Transferrable Vote** **- 3. Mixed Member Proportional** \- [Electoral voting system is related to] [Party system] 15 Sunday, January 10, 2021 \- Plurality/majority = two-party system \- PR = multi-party systems [Composition of government] \- plurality/majority = one-party government \- PR = coalition government \- **Duverger's law:** non-proportional elections favor two parties while proportional elections favor multi-party systems - [How to explain vote choice:] **Economic voting** --- reward parties if economy is doing well **Class voting** --- based on socio-economic differences ** Religion, gender, race** **New Party Voting** --- psychological attachment to political parties (partisan re-alignment) but growing partisan de-alignment, increased volatility (fluctuating voting patterns), class de-alignment \[post-materialist values\] **Rational choice model** --- benefiting self interests (but fails to explain why people vote at all) - [Legislatures] **Parliaments**: legislature in parliamentary systems **Congress**: legislature in presidential systems **Unicameral legislature:** one single chamber **Bicameral legislature:** two chambers (US) \- Lower house/**first chamber** \[house of representatives\]: represents the population, elected \- Upper house/**second chamber** \[senate\]: representing socially/territorially defined groups, elected or appointed \- **Strong bicameralism:** both chambers have roughly equal powers \- **Weak bicameralism:** second chamber \< first chamber \- Advantages: stronger checks and balances, wider representation, better legislation \- Disadvantages: conflict between two chambers, slower procedures, reduced accountability [Functions of legislatures] \- [Representation of constituents :] interest aggregation and articulation But overrepresentation of 4 Ms (middle class, middle aged, men, majority group) \- [Legitimization] Promote the legitimacy of the entire political system \- [Law making] **Positive legislative power**: ability to initiate/propose laws **Negative legislative power:** ability to consider/amend/delay/reject proposed laws But shared with executive 16 Sunday, January 10, 2021 \- [Scrutiny] Of the executive branch \- Veto powers, approving executive appointments, question time, remove the executive from office (vote of no confidence in parliamentary system or impeachment in presidential) [Legislative committees] \- prepare and examine legislation, review bills, supervise executive, investigate matters of public concern - Legislative oversight --- depends on autonomy from other branches \- 15-30 people who are experts on specific policy areas \- [Executives] Head of state \- Largely ceremonial Head of government \- Real executive power Preform 3 functions: policy formulation and execution, and coordinating state activities - [Presidential systems] Independence between executive and legislature (need to cooperate) --- both are directly elected President has fixed tenure (except in the case of impeachment) Head of state = head of government President appoints cabinets \- [Parliamentary systems] Mutual dependence between executive and legislature --- fusion of power --- collective responsibility Executive is drawn from the legislature --- no limited tenure Executive can be removed with vote of no confidence but executive can dissolve legislature and call an election In theory the prime minister is the "first among equals" but prime ministers are gaining power - [Semi-presidential systems] Power shared between president and prime minister --- Cohabitation President is directly elected and has power to appoint prime minister, dismiss them, dissolve parliament, call a referendum, declare state of emergency Prime minister appoints a cabinet Attractive to ex-communist countries because of strong focus on nationalism and helps to overcome extreme party fragmentation \- [Presidential vs. parliamentary] **Presidential**: strong separation of power and direct accountability but conflict could lead to immobility **Parliamentary**: fusion of power can create stable and effective democracies but also can produce leaders with considerable power 17 Sunday, January 10, 2021 \- [Pressures on the state --- state locked between supranational and local pressures] From above: European Union, Global warming From below: state challenges to give up authority to lower levels \- [4 layers of government] International/supranational National/central/federal Meso-level/regional/substate/provincial Local/municipal \- [3 forms of territorial organization] [Unitary states] \- Central government has the most constitutional power Some quasi-federal states may exist but they are inferior to central gov. \- Devolution: central level can grant decision making power to lower levels while maintaining its superiority \- Efficient, central government is clearly responsible, supports national integration, but national majorities can repress national minorities [Federal states] \- Central and sub-state government both have constitutional power and a degree of sovereignty - Sovereignty is shared \- Combination of self rule (autonomy) and shared rule (share authority to make/block decisions) \- Importance of written constitutions determining power, constitutional arbiter (like the supreme court in the US), intergovernmental consultation, and 'linking institutions' \- Better suited for large states, adds stability in countries with geographical divisions, another separation of powers, protection of minority rights, but complex, inefficient and slow Paradox of federalism: does self rule accommodate or exacerbate ethnic/social divisions? [Confederations] \- States retain its national sovereignty but lends some power to a central body \- Decision making by unanimity \- Principles are often applied in international organizations (UN, NAFTA) \- Absence of effective central body often makes confederations powerless and unsustainable - [Local governments] Controlled by central gov. Subordinate to central institutions Limited in whether or how they can collect taxes \- [Democracy vs. Efficiency] Local government fosters democracy but at the cost of efficiency 18 Sunday, January 10, 2021 Avoid NIMBY (not in my backyard) \- **Subsidiarity**: decisions should be taken at the lowest possible level of government --- at the level closest to the people affected by the decisions \- **Balance of power in international arena:** balance does not mean equal powers \- What are the **international power dynamics**? [Bipolarity] \- Cold War period \- International system revolved around two poles: US and USSR \- Two conflicting power centers [Unipolarity and hegemony] \- 1990s - beginning 21st century \- One power center \- First seemed to be a move ---\> cooperation BUT rise in ethnic, racial, regional conflicts - USA as sole remaining power center [Multipolarity?] \- Three+ power centers \- The decline of the US \- Rise of China, the EU \- Diffusion of power beyond the state: to NGOs, multinationals, terrorism \- How do states **engage**? [Multilateralism] \- Two+ states working together to solve problems based on international rules and norms: human rights, cooperation, collective security [Bilateralism] \- Alliances between two states \- US-Japan, US-South Korea [Unilateralism] \- [The Development of the EU] **1951**: European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) \- Coal and steel production under High Authority --- practical, incremental, with great consequences for peace and stability **1957**: Rome Treaty: European Economic Community and Euratom \- High authority becomes European commission 19 Sunday, January 10, 2021 \- Council of ministers per policy area \- Customs union: internal free trade area \- Common agricultural policy (CAP): comes into power 1962 ^**1991-(1993)**:\ Maastricht\ Treaty^ \- European Union \- Plan for European Monetary Union (EMU) and Euro (to start in 1999) \- First signs of opposition to EU integration **2000-(2003):** Nice Treaty \- Promoting growth and productivity \- January 2002: EURO notes and coins replace national currencies in member states **2007**: Lisbon Treaty \- Tension between intergovernmentalism and supranationalism remains unsolved \- More decisions under qualified majority voting \- Extended powers for European Parliament \- European Parliament elections are linked to composition of the Commission \- [Empowerment of the European Council (heads of states and governments)] \- [The European Council] Paris 1961 Heads of states and governments of the member states Official role since Lisbon treaty Coalitions form Decides by unanimity Permanent president (Charles Michel) More power than European Parliament Meeting of the European Council is a EU summit Identify specific areas of concern and outline particular actions to take/goals to reach \- [The European Commission] Executive arm of the EU Commissioners appointed by member states Govern from an "a-political, neutral" perspective considering the general EU interest Appointed every 5 years **Spitzenkandidaten**: each group in parliament puts forward a candidate --- transnational European election (resembling the US) EP commission exams 20 Sunday, January 10, 2021 Prime minister/president and his cabinet Enforces laws, initiates legislation (only branch which can do this and is controversial) - [The European Parliament and Council of the European Union] ^Both\ discuss,\ debate,\ reject,\ or\ accept\ legislation^ Budgetary functions Serve as the legislature Do not need approval of the commission but the commission has veto powers [European parliament] \- Directly elected by European citizens with proportional representation \- Lower house [Council of the European Union] \- Upper house (like the senate) \- Supposed to represent national governments (ministers of finance, ministers of foreign affairs) - [The European Court of Justice] Controls national implementation under basis of treaties \- **Exclusive European competences:** internal market, customs union, external trade \- **Shared competences:** social pillar, environmental policy, consumer protection) \- **Exclusive member state competences:** all areas where EU competence has not been specified \- **'executive drift'** = EU integration enforces executive power, and weakens national parliaments and opposition parties \- **European Citizens Initiative:** petition (1 million signatures from at least 7 members states, the European commission must discuss issue) \- [10 Years of Crises] 2009: Debt and economic 2015: Refugee 2016: Brexit 2018-today: Rule of law crises in Poland and Hungary (offense of human rights) 2020: Covid-19 \- **Federal features of the EU:** commission takes precedence over national law, pooling of sovereignty \- **Confederal features:** unwillingness to surrender sovereignty on economic/social/migration policies, weak parliament, weak coordination of foreign policy, members can leave at any time, ultimately still has the choice between deep or shallow integration 21