Pol-theory-readings.docx

###### Objectives: - To know the background of Plato's Philosophy - To know about Plato's Theory of Justice - To know about Plato's Theory of Education - To know Plato's concept of Communism - To differentiate between Plato's communism and modern communism - To know about Plato's theory of Philosopher King - To know about Plato's theory of Ideal State ##### INTRODUCTION: ###### Plato's theory of Justice: ###### (a)Traditional theory of justice: #### 2 ###### 1.2.2(b) Radical theory of justice: ###### (c)Pragmatic theory: ###### plato's own views on Justice: a. At the level of state. b. At the level of individual. **[Vintue ]** --------------------------- -- -- Wisdom Courage Temperance #### 3 1. It implies functional specialization viz allotment of specific function to each according to his capacity and merit. 2. It implies non interference by various classes in each other's sphere of duty and concentration on its own. 3. It implies harmony between the three classes representing wisdom, courage and temperance respectively. ###### Features of Plato's theory of Justice: 1. Justice is virtue. 2. Justice is both private as well as public virtue. 3. Justice is universal. 4. Justice is for welfare of every one. 5. Justice is functional specialization. Each unit of society performs its specific task. Thus different demands of society develop inter dependence. This interdependence results into cohesiveness in the society. 6. ###### Criticism of Platonic Concept Justice: c. Plato's theory of justice has no scope for individual freedom. Plato only looks at the duty aspects and neglects aspects of rights. d. Plato's theory of justice is unacceptable in present age of democracy. It is based on inequality among individuals. It establishes hierarchial Society. It completely subordinates individual to state. e. Plato's concept of justice is based on moral principles and lacks legal sanction in so far it is not enforceable. f. According to Plato's concept of justice Philosopher king is himself the embodiment of justice. He is not bound by any laws and given absolute powers to administer justice. But absolute power and monopoly in the hands of a few persons or class of persons is bound to lead to corruption and misuse of power. Power corrupts man and absolute power corrupts absolutely is an old dictum. g. Justice should be uniform and universal.But Platonic justice has special inclination for philosopher class. The very idea of having a privilege class defects the whole concept of justice. h. Plato's concept of justice gives rise to totalitarianism and completely ignores the humanitarian principles like equality, individualism and freedom. i. According to Professor Popper, Platonic concept of justice leads us to class state. According to him, "Plato calls for privilege just while we usually mean by justice rather the absence of such privilege." Thus justice should not create privileges but on the other hand it should be devoid of privileges. ###### Conclusion: #### 4 ###### Check your progress: 1 A. Why Plato's theory of Justice is called an unconventional theory of Justice? B. What is Justice according to Plato? 3. ###### Plato's theory of Education: ###### Methods of Plato's Education: #### 5 3. ###### Features of Platonic system of Education: i. Education is state controlled and compulsory. ii. Education is both for male and female. iii. Plato was in favour of strict censorship of all literary and artistic work to ensure that the youth did not come under the bad moral influence. iv. Plato's education aimed at moral as well as physical development of children. v. The chief objective of Plato's education was to produce philosopher king. vi. Education is life long Process. vii. He combines theoretical as well as applied aspects of education. viii. Plato gives focus on education of guardian class. He elaborates in depth the education system for guardian class. He does mention about education of appetite class but he does not go into detail. 4. ###### Plato's Curriculum of Education: ix. Elementary education x. Higher education. i. **Elementary Education:** The Elementary education was further sub divided into three stages- a. **From birth to six years:** The first stage lasted from birth to the age of six years. At this stage both the boys and girls are to be given education in language. The children are also taught basic facts of religion, religious institutions, music and moral education. b. **From 6-18 years**: During this period the child is to be taught music, gymnastic, literature and other general things. The music is essential for the development of soul and gymnastic for the development of body. Thus, at this stage both body and soul are to be developed. c. **From 18-20 years:** At this sub stage both men and women are given compulsory military education. ii. **Higher Education:** The higher stage of education lasts from 20 to 35 years of age. After the age of 20 a selection is to be made and those showing aptitude for science and philosophy are to be given higher education. The higher education is also subdivided into two sub-stages. The first phase extending from 20 to 30 years of age and the second phase extending from 30 to 35. #### 6 5. ###### Criticism of Plato's scheme of education: xi. Plato's scheme of education was meant for the guardian class alone. He ignored the education of producer class. xii. Plato's scheme of education was completely controlled by state which restricted autonomous thinking. xiii. Plato's scheme of education was not logical in so far there was no relationship between one stage to the other. During the first stage he insisted on study of music and gymnastics which were hardly capable of developing thinking capacities amongst the young stars. The second stage insisted on the use of reasoning faculties. It is difficult to understand how the learners who have not developed thinking capacity during the first stage of education shall be able to adjust in the second stage. xiv. Plato's entire education process is too long. After devoting a major portion of his life to education alone the rulers are hardly left with any time to devote to other pursuits. xv. In Plato's scheme of education, no emphasis has been given to the education in the art of administration. The philosopher king who is required to administer the state is not given any training in the art of administration or other allied problems. So, education of philosopher rulers, as Plato contemplates will not create political rulers. Rather it will produce academic theorists who may not be fit for ruling. 6. ###### Conclusion: A. **Who called the "Republic" the best treatise ever written on education?** B. **What is the main objective of Plato's theory of Education?** 4. **Plato's concept of Communism:** #### 7 ###### Communism of Property: #### 8 ###### Criticism of communism of Property: 1. First, Acquisition or ownership is natural instinct of man and deprive anyone of it is contrary to the basic human nature and can prove harmful for the development of the society. With doing away of the private property there would hardly be any incentive for hard work and healthy struggle, which is so important for the progress of society, shall come to an end. 2. Plato's system of communism is meant only for the ruling classes and excludes the producer class. But the producer class form the majority of the society and any scheme which excludes the majority class bound to be a failure. 3. Plato's communism of property is bound to result in loss of production because there will be none to look after common and joint property. There will be no personal interest but impersonal compulsions which will definitely be unhealthy and not in the national interest. 4. Plato's concept sacrifices individual at the altar of state which is in no way healthy. Plato has all long believed that individual is means to an end but he has forgotten that he is an end himself. Since this philosophy is opposed the individual^,^ therefore it can't be justified. 5. Plato's communism destroys the institution of Private property which is a symbol of civilization. By abolishing it as Aristotle points out, it will destroy the sentiments of charity and benevolence the essentials of a healthy society. 6. As Aristotle says, the unity of the state should be promoted by proper education and not by communism. 7. Aristotle criticises Plato for providing material remedy to the spiritual diseases through communism. It is rather difficult to understand that material remedies will cure spiritual diseases. Accordingly it is difficult to understand the logic of his philosophy. ###### Conclusion: #### 9 ###### Communism of wives: 1. Plato's scheme of communism of wives is essentially meant for the guardian class and the vast majority of population consisting of peasants, artisans etc are not covered by it. 2. The family life is a serious and powerful rival to loyalty to the state because hoarded wealth and secluded women are likely to detract from the devotion of the guardian class and give rise to the feeling of selfishness. Communism of wives was bound to curb the sentiments of selfishness and emancipate the woman from the drudgery of home, and thus enable them to devote to the service of the state. 3. In Plato's communism of family, there is no system of permanent wedding among the guardian class and all the women are to be common to all men and vice versa. 4. All guardians (both men and women) are to live together in common barracks. 5. It was the duty to the state to arrange a temporary mating between the best men and best women for one year to produce requisite number of children. The mating was to take place between women of 20 to 40 years of age and men 25 to 55 years of age. Mating beyond this age limit was prohibited. 6. All children soon after their birth were to be separated from their mothers. The responsibility for rearing of children was to be entrusted to state nurses. The children were also to be provided with necessary education at the state expenses. In this system neither the child knows his parents nor the parents know their child. 7. Weak and disfigured children were to be killed soon after their birth so that they may not prove to be a burden for the state. 8. Plato's communism of family is intended for the purpose of bringing unity in the state. 9. Plato feels that communism of family is an essential and necessary condition for the realization of justice and virtue. 10. In contrast to communism of property which insisted on common renunciation of property by the guardian class, Plato's communism of wives insists on common ownership of women by the guardian class. #### 10 ###### Reasons for Communism of Family: 1. Political Purpose. 2. Moral Purpose. 3. Eugenic Purpose. 1. **Political Purpose:** Communism of wives was an essential condition for Plato's united state. He felt that family was the greatest stumbling block in the unity of the state even more than private property. Because family affection was a potent rival of loyalty to the state. At the same time Plato also thought that communism of family would solve the problem of corruption. Family is major factor inducing man to become corrupt. If guardian class has no family they will treat all citizens as their own children. It will ensure legitimacy in system. 2. **Moral purpose:** It was associated with upliftment of women. State took over the job performed by family. Family is an institution based on sexual division of labour. Women are occupied with the task of family so they don't have time to participate in public life and become virtuous. Communism of family would result in liberation of women and talent of women would not go waste and could be utilized in wider interest of state and society. 3. **Eugenic purpose:** Another reason advocated by Plato in support of his philosophy was that there should be an improvement in race. He felt that by controlling system of marriage it was possible to improve the Greek race. State would select the partners for procreation purpose. 12. ###### Criticism of Plato's ideas about Communism of Wives: #### 11 ###### Conclusion: ###### Comparison of Plato's Communism with modern Communism: 1. Both considered private property as an evil which needs to be abolished. Both give primary to collectivity over individual. 2. Both hold that the individual interests can be best secured by promoting the general interest. 3. Both believe in existence of classes. 4. Both want to establish an ideal state in which there will be no economic struggle and each will get according to one's needs and necessities. #### 12 5. Both want to eliminate the existing frictions and differences in the society and bring about unity and solidarity. 6. Both relegate the individual to the position of an instrument for the promotion of the interest of the community. 1. Plato's perspective is idealist where as Marxist perspective is materialistic. 2. Plato believes in continuation of classes where as Marx believes in abolition of classes. 3. Plato's communism is meant only for the guardian class and the vast majority of people consisting of peasants, workers, artisans etc did not come under its purview. On the other hand the modern communism is for entire society. 4. In Plato the basis of class is spiritual i.e it depends upon dominant element in soul while for Marx basis of class is economic. It is related to ownership of means of production. 5. Plato's communism is essentially political in nature and aims at unity of the state; on the other hand the modern communism is primarily economic in nature. 6. Plato's communism covered not only property but also wives. The modern communism on the other hand deals only with the property and instruments of production. 7. Plato's communism is aristocratic in nature. It is for the guardian classes. The working classes have no place in his arrangements. Whereas modern communism is primarily for the proletariats. 8. Plato's communism was essentially meant for the Greek city states; On the other hand the modern communism is not only concerned with national states. It is rather a worldwide movement. 9. Plato believed that education is a means to achieve communism; where Marx believed in violent revolution. 10. Plato's communism was highly philosophical and could never be put into actual practice. On the other hand the modern communism is highly practical philosophy and has already been come into practice in many countries. A. **Plato calls for communism of wives and property for which section of the society?** B. **What is the basic concern for Plato behind providing system of communism?** 5. **Theory of Philosopher King:** #### 13 ###### Features of Plato's Rule of Philosopher king: 1. Plato's philosopher king is one who is the lover of wisdom. He is a passionate seeker after truth. He knows everything by virtue of his knowledge. Because of his intellectual brilliance he has better capacity to judge the things than any other ordinary person. He can look after the interests of community better than those who are ignorant. 2. Plato's philosopher rules are the product of comprehensive and rigorous training and education, spread over a period of thirty five years. In fact the system is so extensive and exhaustive that it continues for the whole life of the philosopher king. 3. Plato basically has tried to establish intellectual aristocracy. He wants to have government of the elite when he says that all are not competent to rule. He argued that as all persons residing in a state not possess equal capacity to cultivate virtue, hence all were not entitled to participate in the affairs of the government. 4. The interest of the philosopher king and those of the state are identical and there is no clash between the two. In fact the philosophers have no interests apart from the welfare of the members of the community. The element of reason which is present in them enables them to distinguish his own as well as state interests. In other words the philosophers possess the qualities of selfless service and rationality. 5. The rule of philosopher king is absolute in nature. He is not accountable to public opinion or bound by customs or written laws. According to Plato since the philosopher rulers are the embodiment of virtue and knowledge. There is no logic for public control over their actions. Philosopher rulers know it well what is good or bad for the community, there is no need to bind them with the rules of laws. 6. Through the philosopher rulers are assigned absolute powers, Plato imposes a restraint on their power by insisting that they must respect the fundamental articles of the constitution and must not change the basic principles on which the state rests. 1. Philosopher king must watch against the excessive inflow of property and wealth in the state. 2. Philosopher king should cheek that the size of state remains consistent with the principle of self sufficiency. #### 14 3. Philosopher king has to maintain principal of justice i.e. principle of functional representation. 4. He has to maintain the system of education proposed by Plato. 5. Thus philosopher king is not limited by public opinion, but he is limited by the basic structures of constitution of republic. 16. ###### Evaluation of Plato's Theory of Philosopher King: 1. Plato's conception of philosopher rulers leads to tyrannical government which runs counter to the notion of democratic government. 2. It is a utopian idea because it is not possible to find out a philosopher king. 3. There is a possibility of misuse of power by philosopher king. It is a well known fact that power corrupts. There is no guarantee that rule of philosopher king will not degenerate. 4. Plato's theory of philosopher ruler is elitist in nature. It supports the principle of in-equality. 5. The scheme of education outlined by Plato for his Philosopher ruler is highly defective. He thinks that the study of music, abstract mathematics, dialects and the idea of the Good would be sufficient to produce an efficient philosopher king. But he does not provide for the study of essential subjects like law, finance and so on which is very much essential for a good ruler. 6. A philosopher king can at any stage also think of combining his own interests with public interests and thus may try to have unlimited powers and make the lives of citizens miserable. In his scheme of things there is no provision for checking his selfishness. 17. ###### Conclusion: ###### Check your progress: 4 ###### Plato's Ideal State: #### 15 2. ###### Features of Plato's ideal State: 1. Rule of philosopher king: According to Plato an ideal state must be governed by a philosopher king who is embodiments of perfect knowledge, reason personified. The Philosopher rulers are above passion and prejudice. They represent virtue in action. By their actions they should command respect from all. They are not to be bound by any law, custom or public opinion. Such rulers alone could be in a position to look after the welfare of all. The proposition that the philosophers who possess knowledge should rule as a right, is the central point of the whole scheme of Plato's ideal state. 2. State controlled education system: According to Plato state should have full control over education. For him it was the only agency which could produce philosopher kings and train the minds and thoughts of the people in right and proper direction. In his philosophy education had both social and individual aspects. In society, education should promote social welfare while individually it should bring soul closer to reality. 3. Functional Specialization: In Plato's ideal state there was functional specialization. Every person performed only those functions for which he was fitted and got training in order to perform his functions efficiently. Plato did not like that each and everybody should go on performing functions of the type which were not suited to his temperament and taste. 4. Equal treatment of men and women: In Plato's ideal state women are given equal status with men. According to Plato both should be brought up as useful citizens, as both are an integral part of the state and as such there should be no distinction between the two in so far as development of their faculties is concerned. #### 16 5. Communism of wives and property: Plato believed that if the ruling class was to perform its duties devotedly and honestly it was essential that there should be communism of wives and property. In other word Plato talked of communism of wives and property in his ideal state to the guardian class to make them free from the bondage of family life and worries and narrow family interest so that they can devote themselves to the work of the state. Without such a communism there was every possibility of their becoming corrupt and selfish. 6. Totalitarian outlook: Plato's ideal state has totalitarian outlook. According to Plato people can only develop in the state and that was the only agency through which his personality could find the fullest expression. The people should not think in terms other than merging themselves in the state. None can either be above or aside the state but was an integral part of the state. Since the philosopher king ruled the state and he was above individual or party considerations, there was no need to fear or think in terms of protecting one's own interests. It should be left entirely to the state to look after the welfare of the people living in. 7. Restriction of Art and literature: According to Plato in the ideal state there should be positive restrictions on the production of art and literature. In such a state no cheap unpopular or immoral literature should come before the people. 8. Spirit of Justice: According to Plato justice is an essential and integral part of a state. In Plato's ideal state there prevails the spirit of justice. Justice according to Plato means the due performance by each individual of the functions for which he is best fitted by aptitude and training. No individual should interface in other's sphere. 9. Retention of Slavery: Plato believed that in an ideal state, it was essential that the ruling class should have sufficient leisure, because without it the rulers shall not be in a position to devote their time for the development of the people. It was therefore most essential that the slavery should be retained and the slaves should be given physical work so that the ruling classes could devote their time for leisure. In fact, for him slavery system was an integral part of his ideal state. ###### Criticism of ideal State: 1. Utopian concept: The ideal state propounded by Plato is more or less utopian. It is neither possible nor practicable. 2. Anti human state: Plato has tried to portray a state which is against the human nature. Communism of wives and property is against human sentiments and feelings. 3. Denial of education to the lower class: Plato denied higher education to lower classes and thus he has created a distinction between ruling and the working class. This is vitally injurious to the state and can result in the division of society into hostile camps. This can bound to do more harm than good to the society. #### 17 4. Ignoring of Producing Classes: Plato has ignored the rule of working and producing class. The very idea of ignoring a particular class is undesirable and unwanted and does fall in line with the philosophy of perfect or an ideal state. 5. Anti-Democratic: Plato's ideal state is anti democratic in nature and character. Because Plato has made it more or less compulsory for the citizens to obey the commands of the philosopher king. They have not been given any authority or power to defy his commands. He has not even put his philosopher king under the obedience of the law which may result in dangerous consequences. Again philosophy of ideal state does not believe in the equality of man. 6. Perpetuating Slavery: Plato has not condemned the institution of slavery. Instead he has tried to perpetuate it. He has done his utmost to justify the continuance of this institution. Whatever may be the merits of this institution in his own philosophy but it cannot be accepted on any ground. 7. Totalitarian in nature: Plato's ideal state is totalitarian in the sense that it completely merges the individual in the state and thus pays no regards to the individual. Plato has very badly under estimated the individual, common man and his role in the state. 8. The rule of Philosopher king: Plato's ideal state is to ruled by philosopher king. But it is again unrealistic. 4. ###### Conclusion: ###### Check your progress: 5 A. In which book Plato portrays the picture of an ideal state? B. What is the main basis of Plato's Ideal State? ###### 1.7.0 Suggested Readings: i. Arora, Prem and Brij Grover.Political Thought FromPlato to Marx. Cosmos Bookhive PVT LTD, Delhi ii. Mukherjee, Subrata and Susila Ramaswamy. A History of Political Thought: Plato to Marx. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India. iii. Varma, V.P. Modern Political Thought. Agra: Laxmi Narayan Aggarwal. iv. Bandari, D.R. History of Europian Political Philosophy. Bangalore: The Bangalore Printing and Publishing Company**.** #### 18 ###### Check Your Progress: 2 ###### Check Your Progress: 3 ###### Check Your Progress: 4 ###### Check Your Progress: 5 i. Arora, Prem and Brij Grover.*Political Thought FromPlato to Marx*. Cosmos Bookhive PVT LTD, Delhi ii. Mukherjee, Subrata and Susila Ramaswamy. *A History of Political Thought: Plato to Marx.* New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India. iii. Varma, V.P. *Modern Political Thought*. Agra: Laxmi Narayan Aggarwal. iv. Bandari, D.R. *History of Europian Political Philosophy.* Bangalore: The Bangalore Printing and Publishing Company. ###### Model questions: 1. Critically discuss Plato's theory of Justice. 2. Discuss Plato's theory of Education? 3. Discuss the basic features of Platonic system of Education. 4. Critically discuss Plato's scheme of Education 5. Critically Discuss Plato's theory of Communism? Distinguish between Plato's communism and Modern communism. 6. What are the basic reasons for communism of family according to Plao? 7. Who is a Philosopher king? What are the basic principles the Philosopher rulers expected to be observed? 8. Critically discuss Plato's rule of philosopher king. 9. Critically discuss Plato's theory of Ideal State. #### 19 1. Objectives 2. Life and Time 3. Influences 4. Method of Study 5. Works of Aristotle UNIT-II ARISTOTLE ================= ###### \*Check Your Progress-I 6. Aristotle's theory on State 7. Aristotle's theory of Justice 8. Aristotle's conception of Slavery ###### \*Check Your Progress-II 9. Aristotle's conception on Family 10. Aristotle's conception on Private Property 11. Aristotle's theory of Education ###### \*Check Your Progress-III 12. Aristotle's conception on Citizenship 1. Who is a Citizen? 2. Criteria for Citizenship 3. Plato and Aristotle Compared 4. Criticism 5. Aristotle's conception of Revolution 6. Methods of Preventing Revolution 13. Conclusion ###### \*Check your progress-IV 14. Contribution of Aristotle 15. Let Us Sum Up 16. Suggested Readings Model Question #### 20 ###### Objectives ###### Life and Time ###### Influences ###### Method of Study a. Plato was pre-eminently a radical thinker. Aristotle was moderate and conservative in his political speculation. b. Plato adopted the deductive method of reasoning. Aristotle followed the inductive method. c. Plato started with abstract notions of justice and virtue to make these the guiding principles of his ideal state. Aristotle made a comparative study of the existing constitutions to discover the elements that go into the best constitution. d. Plato planned his ideal state on the basis of certain assumed principles like the rule of philosophy, communism etc. regardless of practical difficulties. #### 21 e. Plato proceeded from the Universal or the ideal to the particular, while Aristotle went along from the particular and concrete to the Universal. f. Plato believed that reality lay in the ideal while Aristotle thought that it lay in the concrete manifestation of a thing or object. g. Aristotle regarded himself more as a systematiser of already existing knowledge that as a propounder of new philosophy like Plato. The reasoning of Aristotle is less imaginative and more logical and scientific than that of Plato, and his speculations and judgements are sounder than those of his master. h. If Plato apriori or speculative method and started with certain fundamentals, Aristotle relied chiefly on the methods of observation, empiricism and comparison. i. If Plato subordinated politics to ethics, Aristotle gave the pride of place to politics. 5. ###### Works of Aristotle ###### Check Your Progress-I 1. Mention the methods of study of Aristotle. 2. Name some books written by Aristotle. 6. ###### Aristotle's theory on state 1. According to Aristotle, the state is a natural organization. Unlike Plato's ideal state, Aristotle's state is not structured or manufactured , not a make but is a growth- growing gradually out of villages with-villages growing out of families, and the families, out of man's nature, his social instincts. The state grows like a tree. 2. The state is like a human organism. Aristotle is of the opinion that the state, like the human organism, has its own parts, i.e., the individuals. Apart from the state, he argues, the individuals have no importance, and separated from the body, the parts have not like of their own. The interest of the part of the body is inherent in the interest of the body- what separate interest a hand has when apart from the body likewise, the interest of the individuals is inherent in the interest of the state. 3. The state is a self-sufficing institution while the village and the family is not. The self- sufficient state is higher than the families and the villages- it is their union. As a member of the family the individuals become social. 4. The state is not only an association or union as Aristotle calls it, but is an association are not as large as is the state, they are specific, and therefore, #### 22 5. The state is not, Aristotle says, a unity which it is for Plato. Plato seeks to attain unity within the state. Aristotle too seeks to attain the unity, but for him, it is unity in diversity. For Aristotle, the state is not uniformity, but is one that brings all the diversities together. i. which is a small city-state; ii. whose tertiary corresponds to the population it has; iii. that is geographically located near the river and where good climate condition exist. iv. where the rule of law prevails; and v. where authority/power is vested in the hands of the citizens. ###### Aristotle's Theory of Justice #### 23 ###### Aristotle's Conception of Slavery i. It is a fact of nature that the inferior is subordinate to the superior. A soul rules over the body, reason over appetite, similarly men of reason should rule over men who are wanting in reasoning and understanding. Hence the natural subjection of slaves to their masters. ii. Slavery is necessary because it provides leisure to the citizens whose devotion to public duties leaves them no time for personal needs. iii. The interest of the slave lies in his subordination to the master. He does not know his own interest. iv. According to Aristotle it is wrong to believe that all are born equal. Inequality is a fact of nature. Those who possess wisdom are born to rule over those who do not have these. The nature has deliberately gifted them with these virtues. The superior must rule over the inferior. v. In nature everybody and part of the body has a specific function to perform. This one part cannot perform the functions of another part. Similarly those who are physically superior cannot perform the duties of those who are intellectually superior and vice versa. vi. Slavery is a social necessity besides being a family requirement. The relationship between the master and the slavery is complementary and not contradictory. #### 24 vii. Just as marriage between a man and a woman is natural, so is the tie between the master and the slave. ###### Criticism 1. Aristotle's justification of slavery is contrary to notions of human equality and brotherhood. 2. It is more or less impossible in actual practice to have a group of people who are born masters or a born slaves. 3. In modern days retention of this institution is most unwanted and opposed to the very idea of equality. 4. His theory of slavery is contrary to modern notion of social justice which inevitably addresses itself to different forms of disadvantages and discriminations. ###### Conclusion ###### Check your Progress- II 1. Explain the Aristotle's concept on state. 2. Why Aristotle support slavery system? Give reasons for your answer. 9. ###### Aristotle's Conceptions on Family ###### Aristotle's Conception on Private Property #### 25 i. The instinct for acquiring property is the nature's gift to man. ii. Property is necessary for the existence and proper functioning of the household. iii. Private property is essential for leading good life. It also promotes the development of individual personality. iv. The ownership o property is a source of pleasure. According to Aristotle, "Almost all men love money". v. The possession of private property creates a sense of civic responsibility in the owner. vi. Private property makes the man know the art of managing it and the experience thus gained will also be useful in the management of public affairs. vii. Private property which is motivated by self interest will also promote social interest. When the individual will do his best in self- interest, his efforts will also benefit society. a. individual ownership, and individual use, which is, for Aristotle, the most dangerous situation, b. common ownership, and individual use, a situation that begins with socialism, but ends in capitalism- it is also not acceptable; c. common ownership and common use, a devise invariably impracticable; d. individual ownership and common use, a devise generally possible and equally acceptable. ###### Aristotle's Theory of Education #### 26 ###### Check Your Progress- III 1. Why Aristotle give importance on property? 2. Write a brief note on education system of Aristotle. 3. Give two points in support of Aristotle's conception on family. 12. ###### Aristotle's Conception on Citizenship ###### Who is a Citizen? a. Residence in a particular place b. Enjoyment on legal rights c. Descent from a citizen. ###### Criteria for Citizenship ###### Plato and Aristotle compared: #### 27 ###### Criticism 1. Property qualification is exaggerated so as to neglect the poor and working class. 2. His conception on citizenship is contrary to modern motion of democracy premised on political equality. 3. By depriving a large number of people from citizenship rights, the state is bound to have divided loyalties and those who are denied the right are bound to be less interested in state affairs than others. 4. Aristotelian citizenship is extremely limited to privileged few. 5. By making leisure an essential criterion for citizenship, he neglects the manual working class people. ###### Aristotle's conception on Revolution 1. general causes 2. revolutions in a particular kind of state 1. Injustice and ill-will: According to Aristotle one of the major causes of revolution is injustice and ill-will on the part of those who are in power in the state towards their people. Thus where there is discontentment among a substantial section of the society against injustice or denial of justice, there can be the possibility of revolution. 2. Inequal distribution of offices: Another cause for revolution can be inequal, irrational and partial distribution of offices in which a particular #### 28 3. Misuse of authority: Then another reason can be the desire to take revenge from those not in power and to misuse of authority by those in power, thereby to disgraced, under-estimates and defame the opponents who are bound to take revenge at the appropriate time. In other words it can be said that political corruption can lead to revolution. 4. Careless officers and unwanted expenditure: Careless recruitment of corrupt and disloyal officers in army or civil offices and their desire to earn money by legal or illegal methods can result in revolution, specially when it is followed by disproportionate expenditure on some items or in the interest of a particular section of a society. In such cases the changes of revolution still more increase. 5. Neglecting minor affairs: Sometimes when minor affairs are neglected these can assume improportionately high magnitude with the passage of time and can also load to revolution. A minor affairs of today can become an explosive issue of tomorrow. **Causes of Revolution Means to Prevent** - Fair treatment of the poor. - prohibiting individual or group to wield too much power - Conferring honour only to a few - Defective balance of different element in the constitution - Same as above - By mixing oligarchic and democratic means - Intellectual and material development ###### Methods of Preventing the Revolution - Creating an awe in minds of people - Expansion of territory #### 29 i. By gaining confidence of the people: As far as possible the people should be taken into confidence on all important matters so that they do not feel that the government and the masses are two separate entities working at cross purposes. This should particularly be done with regard to national income and expenditure. The people should be made sure that their officials are not utilizing their hard earned money for their personal interests but that the amount is being utilized for collective welfare. Thus the people should be ensured that the money collected is being used for their welfare. ii. Proper selection of people for offices: The people should be assured and an atmosphere created in which they should feel that public offices are not being bestowed on a particular section of the society. They should also feel that all are co-sharers in the state honors and that it is not the monopoly few privileged to hold high offices. In fact state offices should be distributed on merit only and it should be ensured that all are benefited by such a distribution system. iii. Checks on exercise of authority: No group or individual should be allowed to grow very powerful and to the extent that either he stands on the progress of others hinders the development of comparatively weaker sections society. iv. Outsiders should be avoided: No outsider or a stranger should be given very high and responsible post in the state because he cannot have as much interest in the welfare of the state as the citizens or the people of the state can have. v. No sudden promotion: Promotion to political posts should be slow.and as far as possible sudden promotions should be avoided. Sudden promotions result in disadvantage rather than any advantage to the society. These create jealousies and at times even the people promoted are not prepared to shoulder higher responsibilities. vi. Proper education of the people: The people should be educated in the spirit of the constitution so that they develop their ideas in keeping with the constitution of the state and there is no possibility of any conflict. 13. ###### Conclusion ###### Check your Progress- IV 1. Examine the causes of revolution according to Aristotle. 2. Why Aristotle is not in favour of giving citizenship right to women? 14. ###### Contribution of Aristotle #### 30 1. Comparative Method: Though the comparative approach to politics is of recent origin, it was greatness of Aristotle to use it to study 158 constitutions.. 2. Primacy of Law: According to Prof. Ebenstein, \"The concept of rule of law and the constructional state is perhaps the most important legacy. Aristotle has bequeathed to posterity\". The significance of impersonal nature of law and its efficacy to resolve political conflicts is as pragmatic as ever. In this aspect he greatly influenced Aquinas, Hooker and Locke. 3. Theory of Origin of State : Aristotle dictum that \"Man is a political animal\" and his view of natural origin of state have been widely acclaimed to be scientific. 4. Positive Functions of the State : By saying \"state exists not only for the sake of life but also for the sake of good life\", Aristotle wants the state to take care of material as well as moral development of individual. Such view is novel in the sense that even in today\'s world states are entrusted with almost the same task. 5. Conservative Thinker : Aristotle\'s favour for retaining the existing institutions continues to influence conservatives. 6. Role of Middle Class: Aristotle\'s analysis of role of the middle class in sustaining political issues in contemporary period. 7. Private Property: Aristotle\'s plea for private ownership but common use has come to be accepted as most viable solution to problem of social justice. 8. Autonomy of Politic: Aristotle remains the first to make an attempt to separate politic from ethics by use of scientific methods to analyze political issue. 15. ###### Let Us Sum Up ##### 1.0 OBJECTIVE - Understand the political philosophy of St. Augustine. - Explain how Augustine defended Christianity. - Define philosophy of history as depicted by St. Augustine. - Describe Augustine's view of man as a citizen of two cities. - Distinguish between earthly state and city of God. - Assess the contribution of St. Augustine towards political philosophy. - Define St. Thomas Aquinas's concept of state and government. - Highlight Aquinas's views on supremacy of church. - Understand Aquinas's philosophy of law. - Point out the contribution of Aquinas towards political philosophy. ##### 1.1.INTRODUCTION ##### SAINT AUGUSTINE #### 33 1. **Defence of Christianity** #### 34 2. **Philosophy of History from Christian point of view** 3. **Man as a Citizen of two Cities** #### 35 4. **Views on State** #### 36 5. **Idea of City of God** 6. **Conception of Justice** 3. **Contribution of Augustine** #### 37 1. Define Augustine's concept of two cities. 2. 'The state is created by God to remedy human sins', Discuss. 3. How did Augustine relate justice with religion? 4. **SAINT THOMAS AQUINAS** 7. **Concept of the State** #### 38 8. **Concept of Government** #### 39 ###### Supremacy of Church ###### Philosophy of Law #### 40 - **Eternal Law:** The eternal law emanates from the divine reason. It governs both animate and inanimate kingdoms. It governs the whole universe. It is identical with reason and is truth in itself. It is the type of law through which God governs the whole of universe. According to Sabine, "It is the eternal plan of Divine wisdom by which the whole creation is ordered. In itself this law is above the physical nature of man and in its entity beyond human comprehensions." - **Natural Law:** It is the type of law which influences people to dictate the reason of eternal law. It is a type of law which is written in the heart of the people. It is a reflection of divine reason in human beings. It helps in distinguishing between good and evil and also in seeking good and avoiding evil. It helps the people in developing the idea that men should live in society. - **Divine Law:** It is the outcome of commands of God through revelation. It is not the result of natural reason but gift of God. It varies from community to community and changes from time to time. This law is not concerned with secular activities. It is concerned with the spirit. - **Human Law:** It is the outcome of human customs and conventions. It has its origin in human wisdom. It is positive in nature. It is promulgated by the princes. It should aim at common rather than individual welfare. These laws should only touch temporal and not spiritual affairs. It is derived from natural law and is not subordinate to it. According to Foster, "Human law is the system of rule for the regulation of man's conduct worked out for human reason from the principles of Natural laws." ###### Contribution of Aquinas #### 41 1. **Welfare State:** In his philosophy Aquinas mooted the idea of welfare state. By pleading that the state should upkeep the population, look after the poor, promote justice and make roads safe and living he safely planned the idea of welfare state which is being adhered even today. 2. **Constitutional Government:** Aquinas favoured the idea of monarchy as the ideal form of government. But to him that was not absolute but limited one. According to him, monarch should be bound by the laws of the state because their violation would make him a tyrant. By imposing limitations on the authority of monarchs he put forth the idea of the constitutional government which is today considered as the ideal form of government. 3. **Classification of Laws:** Another contribution of Aquinas is the classification of laws based on reason. He did not make law the command of the superior but only a product of reasonable thinking. No law should be obeyed for being merely a command of the superior. Dictates of law should be honoured because of their being based on sound reasoning alone. In addition to this, he has tried to link laws with justice. According to Carlyle, "His treatment represents a very important aspect of the significance of the rational element in law." 4. **Revival of Aristotle's Philosophy:** Aquinas borrowed heavily from Aristotle in many ways. He was so much indebted to him that he has been called as 'Christianized Aristotle.' He is mainly responsible for the revival of Aristotle's philosophy in the west. He agreed with the philosophy of Aristotle so long as it did not clash with church ideals. Graham says, "None before no one after 15^th^ century had studied Aristotle as thoroughly as Thomas had done." 5. **Basis of State:** Aquinas was the first political thinker in the middle ages who declared that the state is not the result of fall of man or due to his sins. It is a moral institution and stands to promote the welfare of its subject. It is an outcome of social instinct of man. The state is not only required to perform negative function of punishing the guilty but positive functions of promoting virtue and good life. Aquinas was the first thinker in middle ages who attached natural and moral basis to the state. 6. **Systematic Knowledge:** Aquinas maintained that philosophy should best be studied in a systematic way. He assimilated various fragments of knowledge and combined them together into a solid philosophy. He systematised reason with faith. His system was so perfect that Foster has described him as one of the greatest systematic philosophers of the world. 7. **Natural Law:** Aquinas gave the concept of natural law in a very systematic manner. He subordinated human law to natural law. His ideas about natural law influence the thinkers of Glorious Revolution including Locke. To quote Maxey, "In reviving the Roman doctrine of natural law and in stressing the rational elements in human law St. Thomas made a far reaching contribution to political thought." 8. **Reconciliation of Church and State:** Aquinas was a staunch supporter of church. He would not tolerate any secular interference in church affairs. But he made a sincere effort to reconcile church and state authorities. If moral uplift was left to the church and political one to the state, there would be no clash between the two. 9. **Welfare of the People:** Another contribution of Aquinas is that he did not ignore the masses and cared for their welfare. He said that the ruler should look after the poor masses, he should make roads secure for them and so on. Thus, St. Thomas Aquinas contributed a lot for the development of philosophy. To quote Dr. J.E. Greene, "Aquinas was the greatest synthesizer of theology and philosophy." #### 42 ##### CHECK YOUR PROGRESS - 2 1. How did Aquinas differ himself from church fathers regarding the origin of state? 2. Why did Aquinas prefer monarchy to democracy? 3. Explain Aquinas's view on law. ##### LET US SUM UP ##### KEY WORDS

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