Western Political Thought Notes - Plato, PDF

NIKHIL GOWDA PSIR NOTES Western Political Thought PSIR Chapter 1 P LATO "Until philosophers are kings or the kings and princes of this world have the spirit and power of p...

NIKHIL GOWDA PSIR NOTES Western Political Thought PSIR Chapter 1 P LATO "Until philosophers are kings or the kings and princes of this world have the spirit and power of philosophy, cities will never rest from their evils." - Plato, The Republic, 4th century B.C. 1.1 INTRODUCTION Plato (427 B.C. to 347 B.C.) was a Greek philosopher from Athens. He is widely considered as the pivotal figure in the history of Ancient Greek and Western philosophy. Plato was the disciple of Socrates and teacher of Aristotle. Plato has been generally regarded as the founder of philosophical idealism. He is also regarded as the “Father of Political Philosophy”. Plato introduced dialectic forms in philosophy. Plato witnessed the most troubled period of Greek history. In the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), Athens was defeated by Spartans. Further, his teacher Socrates was executed by the reactionaries. These developments made Plato to be a strong critic of democracy and termed it as ‘rule of ignorance’. Therefore Plato desired to create an ideal state ruled by a philosopher king. Plato belonged to the school of idealism which believes that human idea creates and determines the material and not vice versa. 1.2 WORKS OF PLATO Plato’s philosophies are included in his notable works:  ‘The Republic’  ‘The Laws’  ‘The Statesman’ 1.3 INFLUENCES ON PLATO Plato’s thoughts were greatly influenced by his contemporary intellectuals and particularly by his predecessors like Pythagoras, Parmenides, Heraclitus and Socrates.  Pythagoras – Plato was influenced by Pythagoras’s teaching that wisdom is the contemplation of spirit and idea is the chief essence behind all material things and forms  Heraclitus – Plato was influenced by Heraclitus’s view that life is a continuous change and nothing is permanent in the world NIKHIL K GOWDA PSIR NOTES Page 1 NIKHIL GOWDA PSIR NOTES Western Political Thought PSIR  Parmenides – From Parmenides Plato learnt that change and motivation are illusions of the senses and reality is eternal  Socrates – He was the greatest influence on Plato. The execution of his teacher Socrates was a shock to Plato which made him lose faith in democracy. Plato borrowed the basic ideas of theory of knowledge from Socrates 1.4 THEORIES OF PLATO Some of the major theories propounded by Plato are as follows: 1. Theory of Ideas 2. Theory of Justice 3. Scheme of Education 4. Communism of Wives and Property 5. Theory of Philosopher King 6. Views on laws 1.4.1 THEORY OF IDEAS “Reality is a shadow of ideas” – Plato For Plato, a man without sufficient reason will not be able to see the reality. He gives his opinion based on the form which he sees. Plato explains his Theory of Ideas using Allegory of Caves. Allegory of Caves The ‘Allegory of the Cave’ is a theory put forward by Plato, concerning human perception. Plato claimed that knowledge gained through the senses is no more than opinion and that, in order to have real knowledge, we must gain it through philosophical reasoning. In the Allegory of the Cave, Plato distinguishes between people who mistake sensory knowledge for the truth and people who see the reality. The theory can be explained as follows:  Imagine a cave, in which there are prisoners. The prisoners are tied to some rocks, their arms and legs are bound and their head is tied so that they cannot look at anything but the stone wall in front of them.  These prisoners have been here since birth and have never seen outside of the cave.  Behind the prisoners is a fire, and between them is a raised walkway.  People outside the cave walk along this walkway carrying things on their head including; animals, plants, wood and stone. NIKHIL K GOWDA PSIR NOTES Page 2 NIKHIL GOWDA PSIR NOTES Western Political Thought PSIR  When people walk along the walkway, the shadows of the objects they are carrying cast on to the wall.  If a person had never seen the real objects ever before, he would believe that the shadows of objects were ‘real.’ The actual reality lies outside the cave. By this example Plato tries to link the problems of ancient Greek city states. The rulers of city states did not possess true knowledge or reason to understand the reality. That is why Plato emphasised that only a person who is highly knowledgeable and whose reason dominates the ides should be the ruler of Greece. CRITICAL EVALUATION Some of the criticisms against Plato’s Theory of Ideas are:  Plato’s theory of ideas is highly ambiguous and is difficult to be interpreted by a common man.  The concept of idea as reality is too vague with endless notions and interpretations.  Thinkers like Karl Marx have opposed idealism and held that matter is the reality. 1.4.2 THEORY OF JUSTICE Plato proposed his theory of justice through the method of dialectics. It is a method where Plato puts forward his ideas through discussions of characters created by him.  According to Plato, justice does not mean mere adherence to the laws, for it is based on the inner nature of the human spirit.  It is also not the triumph of the stronger over the weaker, for it protects the weaker against the stronger. According to Plato,  Justice is a virtue  Justice is universal  Justice is natural and eternal. (It is not created by the state) Functional Classification  Plato said that each individual has three characters namely reason, courage and appetite.  If the character of reason dominates in a person, he would become the ruling class. Accordingly the persons in whom courage and appetite dominates, they would become the guardian and producer classes respectively.  Plato named the ruling class, the guardian class and the producer class as gold, silver and copper respectively. NIKHIL K GOWDA PSIR NOTES Page 3 NIKHIL GOWDA PSIR NOTES Western Political Thought PSIR Plato’s functional classification of the society is depicted in the figure below. Individual’s REASON COURAGE APPETITE dominating characters RULING GUARDIAN PRODUCER CLASS CLASS CLASS Classes in the society GOLD COPPER SILVER What is justice according to Plato?  A just state is achieved with an eye to the good of the whole. In a just society, the rulers, the military, the artisans all do what they ought to do.  In such a society, the rulers are wise the soldiers are brave, and the producers exercise self- control or temperance.  This means that each class has been assigned a specific task and they are expected to stick on to their responsibilities.  One class is not supposed to interfere in the tasks and businesses of the other class. The essential characteristics of Plato's notion of justice can be summarised as follows: a) Justice is another name of righteousness. b) It is more the performance of duties than the enjoyment of rights. c) It is individual's contribution to the society in accordance with his abilities and capabilities. d) It is a social morality and man's obligation e) It is the strength of the social fabric as it involves a web of social system. CRITICAL EVALUATION Some of the criticisms against Plato’s theory of justice are:  The theory was based on moral principles and it lacked legal sanctions. As professor G H Sabine states, “At no point in history mere moral sanctions have been able to protect social good”.  The three fold class division of society is illogical and unscientific.  Karl Popper in his work – ‘Open society and its enemies’ criticizes Plato’s theory of justice as it can lead to authoritarianism or dictatorship.  Plato in the name of justice completely subordinates the individual to the state. NIKHIL K GOWDA PSIR NOTES Page 4 NIKHIL GOWDA PSIR NOTES Western Political Thought PSIR  Plato gives privileges to particular class which may give rise to class-state or domination by one class. In spite of all the criticisms, Plato considered justice as the bedrock of a well ordered society and regarded it as “a harmony between men and men, the orderly organization of relationships”. He believed that universal happiness can be achieved with a sense of justice and fair play. “State is individual writ large” - Plato  This statement is linked to Plato’s theory of justice.  Plato said that justice is present at the level of individual as well as in the level of the state.  In an individual there are three characters namely reason, courage and appetite and similarly the state has three classes namely the ruling class, the guardian class and the producer class.  According to Plato, state is nothing but a magnified version of the individual.  He states that it would be easier to understand the justice at the state level rather than at the level of an individual. Hence he says, “It is easier to read magnified letter”. 1.4.3 SCHEME OF EDUCATION “Plato’s ‘Republic’ is the finest treatise ever written on education” - Jean-Jacques Rousseau Ancient Greece had two systems of education. They were: a) Athenian or the Greek System of Education b) Spartan or the Sophist’s System of Education The characteristics of the two systems of education were as follows: Athenian System of Education Spartan System of Education  It was a privatised education system  Education was fully controlled by the state  The value of ‘individualism’ was promoted  Both men and women were educated. through this system of education  There was compulsory military education.  Women were denied education in this  This system did not focus on logic and system creativity  This system focussed on philosophical and logical education.  Physical training and military training was absent NIKHIL K GOWDA PSIR NOTES Page 5 NIKHIL GOWDA PSIR NOTES Western Political Thought PSIR Combining the above two systems of education, Plato proposed his theory of education. The characteristics of Plato’s scheme of education are as follows:  Education must be state controlled.  Both men and women must be educated.  Education should focus on both moral and physical development of the student  There should be strict censorship on literary and artistic works to ensure that the youth did not come under bad influence  Plato’s scheme of education was only for the ruling class  Finally the chief objective of Plato’s scheme of education was to produce philosopher kings. CRITICAL EVALUATION Plato’s scheme of education has been subjected to criticism.  His scheme of education was meant only for the ruling class. The exclusion of the other two classes of the society means a majority of people wouldn’t be imparted education.  His scheme of education is a lifelong process. Devoting a major part of one’s life to get educated cannot be justified.  Censorship on literary and artistic works is highly derogatory in nature  The art of administration was not included.  His scheme of education aims to produce an obedient citizen rather than a fulfilled man. In the words of Sir Ernest Barker, “Education is an attempt to cure mental malady by a mental medicine”. So in spite of all the criticisms, Plato has to be credited as he emphasised on state controlled education and provided detailed scheme on education. In today’s world both democratic and totalitarian regimes accept the importance of education 1.4.4 COMMUNISM OF WIVES AND PROPERTY ‘Communism’ is a system of social organization where state owns all the means of production. In other words, there is absence of private ownership of the resources.  Communism of wives and property is Plato’s solution to address the problems of corruption and nepotism in Athens.  In this theory, Plato emphasises that the members of the ruling class and the guardian class cannot own private property and neither have a family.  Plato believed that family and private property would be a stumbling block in the way of unity of the state.  Private property is bound to undermine the value of virtue and it also gives rise to selfish considerations.  Family on other hand would be a bigger threat than private property according to Plato. It is the family which promotes nepotism, corruption and selfishness. NIKHIL K GOWDA PSIR NOTES Page 6 NIKHIL GOWDA PSIR NOTES Western Political Thought PSIR Hence, Plato’s communism takes two forms:  The first is the prohibition of private property, whether houses as land or money, to the rulers (and auxiliaries) and the provision that they shall live in barracks and have their meals at a common table.  The second is the abolition of a permanent monogamous sexual relation and the substitution of regulated breeding at the behest of the rulers for the purpose of securing the best possible offspring".  These two types of communism are applied on the rulers and the auxiliaries (guardians). The community of wives had three purposes Political Moral Eugenic Purpose Purpose Purpose Inclusion of To prevent To bring out best women in corruption and genes of men and political affairs nepotism women and their offspring CRITICAL EVALUATION Some of the criticisms against Plato’s communism of property are:  Aristotle being the biggest critic of Plato said that, “Property and family are time tested institutions. It gives men a sense of recognition and emotional security.  Aristotle criticizes Plato for providing material remedy to a spiritual disease through communism.  Plato has applied this theory only to the ruling class and guardian class ignoring the producer class.  By abolishing the institution of private property, Plato has destroyed the concepts of charity and benevolence.  This theory is bound to result in loss of production in the state. As the saying goes, “Everybody’s property is nobody’s responsibility”. Some of the criticisms against Plato’s communism of wives are:  First of all, it is wrong on part of Plato to treat state as an enlarged version of family.  Distribution of females as wives of guardians will lead to distress in social harmony.  The children who are brought up without parental affection shall possess dwarf personalities and they shall do more harm than good to the society. NIKHIL K GOWDA PSIR NOTES Page 7 NIKHIL GOWDA PSIR NOTES Western Political Thought PSIR  State controlled mating is an absurd idea where human beings are compared with animals.  Plato ignores the spiritual aspect in a family.  It would be difficult to understand how a happy state could exist without happy families. 1.4.5 THEORY OF PHILOSOPHER KING Who is a Philosopher King?  According to Plato, Philosopher King is a person in whom reason dominates the passion.  He is a person who is ready to sacrifice his family life and private property  Philosopher King has no lust for power.  Philosopher King can be either a man or a woman. Why did Plato suggest the rule by Philosopher King?  Plato did not favour democratic rule because Athens had many ignorant rulers who did not possess adequate knowledge.  They ran after limited goods, power and authority. This led to nepotism, corruption and disintegration in Athens.  Hence Plato wanted to replace Rule of Ignorance with Rule of Knowledge and Philosopher King was the personification of this knowledge.  That is why Plato says, “Until philosophers are kings or the kings and princes of this world have the spirit and power of philosophy, cities will never rest from their evils”. What powers did Plato assign to the Philosopher King?  Plato gave unlimited power to Philosopher King. He said that the ruler should neither be accountable to public opinion nor bound by any written laws.  In the words of Plato, “No law or ordinance is mightier than the knowledge of Philosopher King”.  Plato asserted that it would be foolish to bind the hands of Philosopher Kings with written laws. It is like “an expert physician who is bound to write prescription based on a medical textbook”. What are the features of rule by Philosopher King?  It would be a government by elite. Professor Zeller says, “Platonic state can be an aristocracy of virtue and intellect exercised by one or few”.  Further, Plato assumes that the interests of the Philosopher King and that of the state is identical and there is no clash between the two.  The Philosopher King is a result of comprehensive and rigorous training. In this line, Ernest Barker says, “Plato’s ideal state is a consequence of his system of education”.  Rule by Philosopher King is better and more flexible than the rule of law. NIKHIL K GOWDA PSIR NOTES Page 8 NIKHIL GOWDA PSIR NOTES Western Political Thought PSIR What were the restrictions on the powers of Philosopher King? Plato in his later stages wrote his two other works namely – ‘The Laws’ and ‘The statesman’ brought certain restrictions on the powers of Philosopher King.  Philosopher King at no point in time can change the constitution of the state.  Plato also says that at any cost Philosopher King cannot alter the social stratification and the scheme of education created by Plato. CRITICAL EVALUATION Some of the criticisms against Plato’s theory of Philosopher King are:  Karl Popper in his book – ‘Open society and its enemies’ names Plato as one of the enemies of the open society because Plato grants absolute power to one person and this can lead to tyrannical rule.  Aristotle says Rule of Law if better than Rule by one as law represents collective wisdom.  Plato tries to promote elite power house and reduces the majority to mere political robots. This is contrary to the ideals of free citizens.  Plato’s scheme is highly defective and not fool-proof. Hence there is no guarantee that it produces a man of high integrity and knowledge.  Emmanuel Kant says, “The king to become philosopher is not likely to happen nor it is desirable since possession of power invariably debases the free judgement of reason”.  The Philosopher King may at times promote his self interests at the cost of public interest. Though there are various criticisms against the idea of Philosopher King, one cannot deny the need of honest, benevolent and knowledgeable leaders in today’s world. Hence it can be said that Plato ‘raised an unsound impracticable superstructure over a sound philosophy.” 1.4.6 PLATO’S VIEWS ON LAWS “No law or ordinance is mightier than the knowledge.” – Plato  Plato believed that the philosopher king is the personification of knowledge and sacrifice.  He is the result of rigorous education and training who belongs to the ruling class.  Hence he tried to justify that only if absolute powers are given to the king; he can make swift decisions for the welfare of the people.  Restricting the powers of philosopher king would be foolish according to Plato.  Plato implied that the laws made by ordinary men would not help to create an ideal state as these laws would be based on public opinion only. Critical Evaluation  Aristotle is the greatest critic of Plato’s idea philosopher king and his views on laws. NIKHIL K GOWDA PSIR NOTES Page 9 NIKHIL GOWDA PSIR NOTES Western Political Thought PSIR  Aristotle believed that rule of law is preferable than rule by the philosopher king even if he possesses immense knowledge.  This is applicable even today as we witness that in India there is rule of law and not rule by men. This restricts of the arbitrary exercise of power as everybody is answerable to and bound by the Constitution of India.  Philosopher king is also a human being. So he also would have appetite and desires. It is impossible to expect him to arrive at perfect and adequate laws all the time. 1.5 PLATO AS THE FIRST FEMINIST Some of the political thinkers believe that even though ‘feminism’ as an ideology evolved in modern times, the initial seeds of feminism was sown by Plato in his theories. What is Feminism? Feminism is an ideology that seeks equality in rights for women in order to improve their social, economic and political status. Elements of feminism in Plato’s teachings  Plato emphasises that both men and women have to be educated in his ‘scheme of education’ which was contradictory to Athenian system of education.  In his theory of philosopher king, Plato mentions that even a woman can be the ruler.  In his idea of communism of wives, women were relieved of their domestic duties such as looking after their children. Plato believed that this would enable the state to tap the talents of women and help them engage in mainstream affairs. Differences between Feminism and Plato’s teachings On the contrary, some of the arguments depict that Plato was against feminism.  Plato treats women as objects in laboratories for eugenic purposes in his theory of communism of wives.  As women would be separated from their children, they would be deprived of their basic qualities like motherhood and caring.  Finally, the primary objective of Plato was to create an ‘ideal state’ where he uses women as one of the mediums to achieve his goal. Although Plato’s main agenda was not women empowerment or feminism, his belief that women are not weaker sections of the society is commendable. Plato’s teachings are very much relevant even today where women are being deprived of their basic rights. NIKHIL K GOWDA PSIR NOTES Page 10 NIKHIL GOWDA PSIR NOTES Western Political Thought PSIR 1.6 PLATO AS THE FIRST FASCIST What is Fascism? Fascism is a form of radical authoritarian or totalitarian political ideology. It is characterized by dictatorship and strong regimentation of the society and economy. Fascism as an ideology came into prominence in early 20th century Europe. Benito Mussolini of Italy and Adolf Hitler of Germany are considered as the prominent figures of fascism. Elements of fascism in Plato’s teachings  Plato subordinates the individual to the state. Further he also moots for leadership of one man (Philosopher king) and grants him absolute authority. This is evident in modern fascist regimes.  Like the modern fascists, Plato believed that democracy is not an ideal form of government. He advocated for a ‘rule by the elite’.  In his scheme of education, Plato stresses upon state controlled education which can be used as a means to produce able rulers and warriors.  Plato advocated for state sponsored eugenics programme and promoted selective breeding. This concept was evident in Hitler’s Nazi rule where he stresses upon radical-hygiene. Differences between modern Fascism and Plato’s teachings  Plato emphasised the importance of reason and rule of knowledge whereas fascism deals with passions and emotions. Plato believed in rationality whereas fascism is an anti-rational ideology.  Plato opposed the ideas of imperialism and colonialism but fascists strongly believed in these ideas. Further fascism also glorifies war.  Plato highlighted the role of women in political affairs and tried to identify their capabilities whereas fascists believed that women are naturally inferior to men. Benito Mussolini stated that the primary role of women is to be child bearers.  Plato subordinated politics to ethics whereas fascist regime is devoid of ethics and morals. Severe exploitation, tyrannical rule, opportunism, lust for power – these are some of the qualities that overshadow the basic fascist ideals. Even though we may find some elements of fascism in Plato’s teachings, his main agenda was to create an ideal state of Athens. He rejected the rule of democracy and held that only the rule of philosopher king would be justified to achieve his goal. We also cannot compare the two ideologies as their timelines and contexts are entirely different. Levinson states that comparing Plato with fascism is like “comparing the uncomparables”. NIKHIL K GOWDA PSIR NOTES Page 11 NIKHIL GOWDA PSIR NOTES Western Political Thought PSIR 1.7 PLATO’S CONTRIBUTION TO THE WESTERN POLITICAL THOUGHT “Western thought, one might say, has been either platonic or anti-platonic but hardly ever non-platonic”. – Karl Popper Some of the major contributions of Plato to the western political thought are: 1. Justice: Plato said justice is an essential element for the sustenance of any society which holds well even today. 2. Functional specialisation: Plato’s classification of the society into three classes based on the function and occupation is also witnessed in modern industrial societies. 3. Knowledge is virtue: Plato gave importance to the rule of knowledge. This applies to modern day rulers. 4. Empowerment of women: Plato thousands of years ago saw women as equal to men in the political affairs. He thus sowed the initial seeds of feminism. 5. Importance of education: He emphasised on state controlled education and provided detailed scheme on education. In today’s world both democratic and totalitarian regimes accept the importance of education. 6. Socialism: Plato spoke about communism, abolition of private property and the importance of state control much before Karl Marx. 7. Organic theory of state: Plato is considered as the ‘father of organic theory’. He emphasised that the state is a whole and the individual is a part of the whole. 8. Revolution: Plato spoke openly about revolution. He urged the people to revolt against tyranny in Athens and thus became the forerunner of modern day revolution. ********************************************************************************* NIKHIL K GOWDA PSIR NOTES Page 12 NIKHIL GOWDA PSIR NOTES Western Political Thought PSIR IMPORTANT QUOTES  "Until philosophers are kings or the kings and princes of this world have the spirit and power of philosophy, cities will never rest from their evils." - PLATO  “Reality is a shadow of ideas”. - PLATO  “No law or ordinance is mightier than the knowledge”.- PLATO  “The State is individual writ large”. – PLATO  “It is easier to read a magnified letter”. – PLATO  “Wise men speak because they have something to say; Fools because they have to say something.” – PLATO  “Justice in the life and conduct of the State is possible only as first it resides in the hearts and souls of the citizens” – PLATO  “Democracy... is a charming form of government, full of variety and disorder; and dispensing a sort of equality to equals and unequals alike.” – PLATO  “One of the penalties for refusing to participate in politics is that you end up being governed by your inferiors.” – PLATO PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS 1. Comment: ‘Reality is a shadow of ideas’ (Plato). 20 marks 2. Comment: ‘For no law or ordinance is mightier than the knowledge’ (Plato). 20 marks 3. Comment: ‘Until philosophers are kings, or the kings and princes of this world have the spirit and power of philosophy, cities will never rest from their evils’. (Plato). 60 marks 4. Explain Plato’s communism and compare it to modern communism. 60 marks 5. Plato’s theory of education is the logical result of his conception of justice. Discuss 60 marks 6. Comment: ‘The State is individual writ large’ (Plato). 20 marks 7. Comment: “Plato’s communism is a supplementary machinery to give effect to and reinforce that spirit which education is to create”. (Nettleship). 20 marks 8. Comment: “Western thought, one might say, has been either platonic or anti-platonic but hardly ever non-platonic”. (Popper). 20 marks 9. “Plato was an enemy of the open society”. (Popper). Comment. 20 marks NIKHIL K GOWDA PSIR NOTES Page 13 NIKHIL GOWDA PSIR NOTES Western Political Thought PSIR Chapter 2 A RISTOTLE "The most perfect political community is one in which the middle class is in control and out numbers both the other classes." - Aristotle 2.1 INTRODUCTION Aristotle (384 B.C. to 322 B.C.) was a Greek philosopher and one of the greatest intellectual figures of western history. He is regarded as the ‘father of political science’ as he was the first to analyse, critically and systematically the then existing constitutions and classify them. Aristotle was a student of Plato and attended Plato’s academy. He was the tutor of Alexander the great. Although not an Athenian, Aristotle lived in Athens for more than half of his life, first as a student at Plato’s Academy for nearly twenty years and later as the master of his own institution, the Lyceum, for about 12 years. 2.2 WORKS OF ARISTOTLE  “Politics” is the important work of Aristotle. It provides valuable information about his political views and philosophies. 2.3 INFLUENCES ON ARISTOTLE  Aristotle was greatly influenced by his father. His biological outlook and scientific approach are clear evidences to this.  The anarchy which prevailed in Athens greatly influenced Aristotle’s political thoughts. He was convinced that lawlessness and turbulent state of affairs in Athens was because the rulers were idealists rather than realists.  Aristotle had preconceived notions that Greek philosophy is superior. He believed that Greeks alone had monopoly of culture and that is why he supported ‘slavery’ in his theories.  Aristotle’s personal experience of married life was quite pleasant. Hence he became a bitter critique of Plato’s communism of wives and property.  Aristotle’s had immense practical knowledge. He spent nearly two thirds of his time studying various political institutions of his time. NIKHIL K GOWDA PSIR NOTES Page 14 NIKHIL GOWDA PSIR NOTES Western Political Thought PSIR  Finally, Aristotle was deeply influenced by his teacher Plato. He spent nearly twenty years in Plato’s academy. 2.4 PLATO AND ARISTOTLE – A COMPARISON “Aristotle is the greatest of all Platonists”. – Professor Foster As mentioned previously, Aristotle was deeply influenced by Plato’s teachings. Here are some of the similarities in the lines of thinking of the two great philosophers:  Like his master, Aristotle believed that man by nature is social and society is an integral part of man’s life. Man cannot be separated from his society.  Both Plato and Aristotle believed that state is indispensable for the development of human faculties. Hence both believed in organic theory of state.  Both of them believed that there is no contradiction between the interests of individual and the state.  Like Plato, Aristotle believed that democracy is not an ideal form of government as ordinary men do not possess the power and capacity to understand the technicalities of a government.  Both believed that education plays an important role in one’s life.  Finally, both believed that politics and ethics are like the two sides of a same coin; which means a close relationship exists with each other. However, there were some differences in the approaches of Plato and Aristotle.  Plato was an idealist whereas Aristotle was a realist. Aristotle was more practical and pragmatic in his approach.  Unlike Plato who believed that the ruling class requires special knowledge, Aristotle believed that ruling class requires common sense.  Aristotle rejects the Plato’s theory of communism of wives and property. He believed that family and property are essential as they are time tested institutions.  Aristotle believed in middle path. According to him, Golden Mean is the Golden Rule.  Plato believed in perfection whereas Aristotle believed in moderation.  Plato was radical in his approach whereas Aristotle was conservative. NIKHIL K GOWDA PSIR NOTES Page 15 NIKHIL GOWDA PSIR NOTES Western Political Thought PSIR 2.5 THEORIES OF ARISTOTLE Some of the prominent ideas of Aristotle are:  Views on state  Classification of constitutions  Theory of slavery  Theory on revolution  Theory on citizenship  Theory on property  Theory of justice 2.5.1 VIEWS ON STATE “Man by nature is a political animal and is ordained by nature to live in the state”. – Aristotle  Aristotle rejects Sophists view that political society is the product of convention. On the other hand he treats state as a natural institution possessing moral authority.  According to Aristotle, state was developed from the family to satisfy the needs and desires of people. As depicted in the figure below, family takes care of one’s biological needs.  The village is where a man starts interactions outside his family. This exposes him to the society and thus satisfies his social needs.  The state aims at the perfection of man and there is no contradiction between the interests of state and individual. According to Aristotle, an individual can achieve self sufficiency only in the state.  Aristotle saw state as a rational institution. He considers state as the supreme association. This is because every association aims at some good whereas state aims at the highest good.  Aristotle emphasised on the organic theory of state. By this Aristotle means that just as an organ cannot be separated from an organism, an individual cannot be separated from the state.  In the words of Ebenstein, “Aristotle held state as a natural community”. Thus he asserted that man would find his true meaning and significance only when he is in a state.  That is why Aristotle says, “State comes into existence for the sake of life and continues for the sake of good life”. NIKHIL K GOWDA PSIR NOTES Page 16 NIKHIL GOWDA PSIR NOTES Western Political Thought PSIR State Self actualizatio Village Social needs Family Biological needs CRITICAL EVALUATION  There is no scientific backing to the Aristotle’s claim that state is a natural institution.  The social contract theorists such as Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and Rousseau claimed that state was created by humans through a contract.  Like Hegel, Aristotle wrongly assumes that, “State is a march of God on earth”. But in reality we have seen that state also performs negative functions. For the crisis West Asian countries such as in Syria, Iraq and Afghanistan are evidences where state has used violence against its own people.  Aristotle claims that, “One who can live without a state is either a beast or God”. This is not necessarily true because even today many tribal groups exist without any state. 2.5.2 CLASSIFICATION OF CONSTITUTIONS  Aristotle studied 158 constitutions of his time and based on this experience he classified the constitutions into various types.  Aristotle claimed that the character of a state was determined by its ‘Constitution’ and a change in constitution would inevitably lead to change in the state.  He emphasises that state changes its identity when its constitution or polity changes.  He also said that no constitution in the world is absolutely good or bad but it is only comparatively good or bad. Now, let us understand Aristotle’s classification. [Refer the table 2.1]  The classification is based on two principles i.e., qualitative and quantitative. Firstly he takes into account the number of people in whom sovereignty is vested. Secondly he takes into account the end which the government serves. NIKHIL K GOWDA PSIR NOTES Page 17 NIKHIL GOWDA PSIR NOTES Western Political Thought PSIR  If the government aims at common good of all the people, then it is a pure form of government. On the other hand if it serves the selfish interests of only the ruling class, then it is a corrupt or perverted form of government.  Accordingly, the three pure forms of government are monarchy, aristocracy and polity and their three perverted forms are tyranny, oligarchy and democracy respectively.  According to Aristotle, Polity is the best and most practicable form of government as it possesses a healthy combination of liberty and wealth. Pure form Perverted form Rule by One Monarchy Tyranny Rule by Few Aristocracy Oligarchy Rule by Many Polity Democracy Table 2.1 Classification of constitutions  Aristotle was willing to propose monarchy as an ideal type of government provided the monarch was an enlightened person. However he asserts that monarchy would disintegrate into perverted forms like tyranny and oligarchy.  Further, he says the change in constitution is a process of continuous changes. This is popularly known as ‘Aristotle’s Cycle of Change’. CRITICAL EVALUATION  Aristotle’s classification of constitutions is not relevant to present times.  He considers democracy as a perverted form of government. But today we see that there is consensus across the globe that democracy is the ideal form of government. Former US president Woodrow Wilson commented that, “Though democracy is the worst type of government, it is the best until we find an alternative”.  Aristotle’s classification is not based on any scientific principles. Distinction is based only on numbers.  Finally, Aristotle failed to distinguish between state and constitution. He used the two terms interchangeably which is confusing. Although Aristotle’s classification has been criticized, it cannot be denied that his classification has proved more lasting and many political thinkers who have offered classification have taken this as a reference. NIKHIL K GOWDA PSIR NOTES Page 18 NIKHIL GOWDA PSIR NOTES Western Political Thought PSIR 2.5.3 THEORY OF SLAVERY “From the hour of their birth, same men are marked out for subjection, others for rule." - Aristotle  Aristotle as realist justified the institution of slavery and considered essential for the proper functioning of family. Slavery was in fact the order of the day.  He considered slave as a living possession and a property of his master. He asserted that since slaves possessed lower capacities and lacked reasoning power, they should obey the ones who have higher capabilities i.e., superior should rule the inferior.  Aristotle defends slavery on three grounds namely: 1. Natural 2. Usefulness 3. Expediency  Aristotle argued that nature has endowed the masters with intellectual strength and the slaves with physical strength. The moral and intellectual development is possible only if the slave meets the material needs of his master. In the words of Aristotle, “It is impossible for musician to produce music without a musical instrument”.  Aristotle asserts that masters should be free from domestic and material worries and should concentrate on public affairs. Further he says that slavery is not only useful to master but also the slave because he shares the virtues of his master and gets elevated. Slave’s association brings his ‘derivative excellence’.  Finally, on the grounds of expediency Aristotle defends slavery because during his times it played a vital role in maintenance of Greek economy.  Aristotle approved only mentally deficient people as slaves. He didn’t even approve prisoners of war as slaves. CRITICAL EVALUATION  Aristotle wrongly assumes that some men are born to rule and others to be ruled. This is against the modern day themes of equality and fraternity.  There is no scientific mechanism to differentiate men as knowledgeable and mentally deficient.  Theory has a tinge of racism as Aristotle considers Greeks as racially superior compared to non-Greeks.  Aristotle treats slave as a private property and as an animate instrument whereas contemporary political thinkers believe in Emmauel Kant’s notion of Human dignity.  Finally his theory is contradictory to modern day concept of social justice. NIKHIL K GOWDA PSIR NOTES Page 19 NIKHIL GOWDA PSIR NOTES Western Political Thought PSIR 2.5.4 THEORY ON REVOLUTION “Everywhere inequality is the cause of revolution”. – Aristotle According to Aristotle, the term revolution has a two-fold meaning. 1. Firstly any major or minor changes in the constitution is a revolution 2. Secondly even a change in the ruling power even though it doesn’t lead to the change in the government or constitution is also a revolution What are the causes of revolution? Aristotle has listed a number of general causes and particular causes of revolution. General causes of revolution:  Natural desire of the people to be treated as equal. People always envy special privileges enjoyed by a few.  The absence of proportionate equality, of fair leads to lack of justice and splits up the state into factions. If substantial section of the society feels that justice is not delivered to them, then it may lead to revolution  That is why Aristotle asserts for a rule by the middle class because only then equality and justice shall prevail and there will be less chances of revolution. Particular causes of revolution:  Demand for social, political and economic equality with those in authority as they tend to acquire more privileges.  Grant of absolute power to one or few individuals.  Misuse of authority by those in power.  The use of unscrupulous methods in elections for the capture of power.  Careless admission of corrupt and disloyal officers into civil and military posts.  The rivalry among different races of people.  Free flow of immigrants into the state.  The neglect of minor changes  Excessive and irrational use of force on the citizens.  Conquest of one nation by another also contains seeds of revolution. What are the methods to prevent a revolution?  Firstly, an effort should be made to gain the confidence and trust of all the sections of society by eliminating all symbols of injustice. NIKHIL K GOWDA PSIR NOTES Page 20 NIKHIL GOWDA PSIR NOTES Western Political Thought PSIR  Aristotle suggested that too much power should not be allowed to concentrate in the hands of one man or one class of men and various classes in the state should be treated with equal consideration.  The state has to inculcate the spirit of obedience to law, especially in small matters and to watch the beginning of change in the constitution.  Great political offices in the state should be outside the reach of unkind strangers and aliens, holders of offices should not be able to make private gain. Public administration, particularly financial administration, should be subjected to public scrutiny.  Further, offices and honours should be awarded on considerations of distributive justice and no class of citizens should have a monopoly of political power. Again the higher offices in the state should be distributed only on considerations of loyalty to the constitution administrative capacity and integrity of character, but each citizen must have his due. 2.5.5 THEORY ON CITIZENSHIP  Aristotle’s conservative viewpoint is clearly expressed in his conception of citizenship. Aristotle defined a state as a collective body of citizens.  Citizenship was not to be determined by residence since the resident aliens and slaves also shared a common residence with citizens but were not citizens. He defines citizen as a person who has the power to take part in the deliberative or judicial administration of any state.  Representative government was unknown to Aristotle because the Greek city- state was governed directly by its citizens. A citizen also enjoyed constitutional rights under the system of public law.  For Aristotle a citizen was one who shared power in polis, and unlike Plato, did not distinguish between “an active ruling group and a politically passive community”.  Aristotle stipulated that the young and the old could not be citizens, for one was immature and the other infirm. He did not regard women as citizens, for they lacked the deliberative faculty and the leisure to understand the working of politics.  A good citizen would have the intelligence and the ability to rule and be ruled. Aristotle prescribed a good citizen as someone who could live in harmony with the constitution and had sufficient leisure time to devote himself to the tasks and responsibilities of citizenship.  A good citizen would possess virtue or moral goodness that would help in realising a selfless and cooperative civic life. In the words of William Ebenstein, “Aristotle’s idea of citizenship is that of the economically independent gentleman who has enough experience, education and leisure to devote him to active citizenship, for citizen must not lead the life of mechanics or tradesmen, for such life is inimical to virtue.  Thus he regarded citizenship as a bond forged by the intimacy of participation in public affairs. Aristotle makes an important distinction between the ‘parts’ of the state and its NIKHIL K GOWDA PSIR NOTES Page 21 NIKHIL GOWDA PSIR NOTES Western Political Thought PSIR “necessary conditions”. Only those who actively share or have the means and leisure to share in the government of the state are its components or integral part.  All the others are merely the necessary conditions who provide the material environment within which the active citizens freed from menial tasks, can function. CRITICAL EVALUATION  He confers citizenship only on a selected aristocratic class and ignores women, children and old aged people from this category.  He gives too much importance to possession of private property and says that only people with assets could become citizens.  By denying citizenship to a large portion of the society, Aristotle promotes a feeling of divisiveness and this would lead to improper functioning of state. 2.5.6 THEORY ON PROPERTY  Aristotle was a critic of Plato’s theory of communism of wives and property. He believed that property and family are essential for man’s life.  In the words of Aristotle, “the institution of property is good for the individual as well as the society. It provides an incentive to the individual to work hard and there by contribute to social progress”. What is property according to Aristotle?  According to Aristotle that property is considered to be legitimate if it is the product of one’s labour. The property which is earned by force or fraud is not legitimate.  He even criticised the institution of money lending. Types of properties Just and Unjust property Animate and inanimate property Aristotle analysed three systems of property 1. Common ownership and common use: Aristotle did not support common ownership and common use of property. According to him, “Everyone’s property is no one’s responsibility”. He says that it would be difficult to carry out business when there are multiple owners. NIKHIL K GOWDA PSIR NOTES Page 22 NIKHIL GOWDA PSIR NOTES Western Political Thought PSIR 2. Common ownership and individual use: This is illogical and impractical. Even if it exists, it will be exploitative in nature. 3. Individual ownership and common use: Aristotle supports this system on the grounds of his Golden Mean Rule. What are the benefits of individual ownership?  Business will be more productive  Due to competition, there will be motivation to work hard  Men of property are men of reason. So it is good for stability.  Property will be a source of charity and generosity What are the benefits of common use? According to Aristotle, excessive property would create jealousy among people. That is why he calls for moderation of wealth. Common use means, the surplus produce of the land can be used for the well being of the society. 2.5.7 THEORY OF JUSTICE  Like Plato, Aristotle believed that justice is the very essence of the state and that no polity can endure for a long time unless it is founded on a right scheme of justice.  According to him, justice is virtue, complete virtue, and the embodiment of all goodness. It is not the same thing as virtue, but it is virtue and virtue in action. Thus Aristotle makes it clear that “the goodness in the sphere of politics is justice, and justice contains what tends to promote the common interest.” Aristotle believes that justice saves the states from destruction; it makes the states and political life pure and healthy.  For Aristotle, justice is either general or particular. According to Aristotle, general justice is complete goodness. It is complete in the fullest sense, because it is the exercise of complete goodness not only in him but also towards his neighbours.  Particular justice is a part of complete or general justice. Particular justice has two sub varieties, namely, distributive and corrective justice.  The classification of justice according to Aristotle is shown in the figure below. NIKHIL K GOWDA PSIR NOTES Page 23 NIKHIL GOWDA PSIR NOTES Western Political Thought PSIR JUSTICE General Justice Particular Justice Distributive Justice Corrective Justice  Corrective justice is mainly concerned with voluntary commercial transactions like sale, hire, furnishing of security, etc: and other things like aggression on property and life, honour and freedom.  Distributive justice consists in proper allocation to each person according to his worth. This type of justice relates primarily but not exclusively to political privileges. Distributive justice assigns to every man his due according to his contributions to the society. Distributive justice is identifiable with proportionate equality. CRITICAL EVALUATION Aristotle’s concept of justice suffers from numerous defects.  In the first place he insists that the virtuous should rule because he can contribute most to the discreet.  Aristotle’s concept of distributive Justice does not apply to modern conditions. Based on the notion of award of officers and honours in proportion to a man’s’ contribution to society, it could apply to a small city states and is not applicable to modern sovereign states with huge population.  Thus his theory distributive justice is far away from the reality of the modern world. NIKHIL K GOWDA PSIR NOTES Page 24 NIKHIL GOWDA PSIR NOTES Western Political Thought PSIR 2.6 ARISTOTLE’S CONTRIBUTION TO WESTERN POLITICAL THOUGHT “‘POLITICS’ is the richest treasure that has come down to us from antiquity. It is the greatest contribution to the field of Political Science that we possess”. – Professor Zeller Aristotle’s thoughts left a deep impact in the Western philosophy. Some of the important contributions of Aristotle are:  Rule of law: The concept of Rule of Law and constitutional state which is universally accepted today is his greatest contribution.  Aristotle gave due importance to the state through his organic theory.  He made the first bid to reconcile liberty and authority.  He is considered as the forerunner of utilitarianism through his principle of Golden Mean.  Aristotle became the first realistic thinker rather than putting forward utopian ideas.  He insisted on the importance of middle class as a balancing force.  He was the first to classify the constitutions. This is used as a reference by many modern thinkers even today.  He believed that there exists a close relationship between politics and ethics.  Finally, Aristotle laid the foundations for comparative method to study politics. IMPORTANT QUOTES  “Man by nature is a political animal and is ordained by nature to live in a state” – Aristotle.  “State comes for the sake of life and continues for the sake of good life”. – Aristotle.  “Just as an organ cannot be separated from an organism similarly an individual cannot be separated from the state”. – Aristotle.  “From the hour of their birth, same men are marked out for subjection, others for rule.” – Aristotle  “Everywhere inequality is the cause of revolution”. – Aristotle  “One who lives outside a state is either a beast or God”. – Aristotle  “Since some men are slaves by nature, others are free men, it is clear that where slavery is advantageous to any one, then it is just to make him a slave”. – Aristotle  “The authority of the master and that of the statesman are different from one another.” NIKHIL K GOWDA PSIR NOTES Page 25 NIKHIL GOWDA PSIR NOTES Western Political Thought PSIR PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS 1. Comment: ‘The aims pursued by revolutionaries, like the origins of revolution, are the same in tyrannies and kingships as they are under regular constitutions’. (Aristotle) 20 marks 2. Comment: “The authority of the master and that of the statesman are different from one another.” (Aristotle) 20 marks 3. Comment: “Rule of law is better than rule of men”. (Aristotle) 20 marks 4. Comment: “Slavery is natural and beneficial for the master and slave”. 20 marks 5. Comment: “Polity is the best practicable form of government”. 20 marks 6. Comment: “Polity or constitutional government may be described generally as a fusion of oligarchy and democracy”. (Aristotle) 20 marks 7. Comment: “The polis exists by nature and that it is prior to the individual”. (Aristotle) 20 marks 8. Attempt a critique on Aristotle’s ideas on slavery. 60 marks 9. Comment: “The state is a creation of nature and man by nature is a political animal.” (Aristotle) 15 marks 10. Central to Aristotle’s political thought is his classification of different types of political constitutions in the Politics. Evaluate. 15 marks 11. Comment in 150 words: Aristotle’s conception of Equality. 10 marks 12. “Everywhere, inequality is the cause of revolution.” Comment. 15 marks NIKHIL K GOWDA PSIR NOTES Page 26 NIKHIL GOWDA PSIR NOTES Western Political Thought PSIR Chapter 3 N ICCOLO M ACHIAVELLI "It is better to be feared than loved, if you cannot be both." - Niccolo Machiavelli. 3.1 INTRODUCTION Machiavelli (1469-1527) was born in Florence, Italy. He is known as the father of modern political science. He is a transitional figure standing midway between the medieval and modern political thought. He was a historian who laid the foundations of a new science of politics by integrating contemporary history with ancient past. He commanded a sinister reputation as no other thinker in the annals of political theory. The initial reaction to Machiavelli’s writing was one of shock and he himself was denounced as an inventor of the devil. This was because Machiavelli sanctioned the use of deception, cruelty, force, violence and the like for achieving the desired political ends. 3.2 WORKS  ‘The Prince’ is considered as a masterpiece produced by Machiavelli. In this work, he gives suggestions to the prince on statesmanship and retention of power.  He produced another major work called ‘Discourses’ 8 years later. 3.3 INFLUENCES ON MACHIAVELLI The factors which influenced Machiavelli’s political thoughts are:  Conditions in Italy: Italy was divided into a number of small but independent states which were constantly at war against each other. Machiavelli wanted all these states to be united by a strong ruler so that they could prosper and flourish  Impact of Renaissance: The renaissance stood for the revival of ancient values and had a profound influence on Machiavelli’s thinking. So he pleads for the transfer of power from church to the state. This movement created a new wave of consciousness among the people of Europe.  Emergence of strong monarchies: The powers were concentrated in the hands of strong monarchs, which earlier rested with feudatories and corporations. This left a deep impact on Machiavelli. He saw this as an opportunity to unify Italy. NIKHIL K GOWDA PSIR NOTES Page 27 NIKHIL GOWDA PSIR NOTES Western Political Thought PSIR 3.4 MACHIAVELLI AS A MODERN THINKER Machiavelli was a modern thinker in the sense that he ceased to be a medieval thinker and ushered new ideas in his works. Some of his ideas area as follows:  He discarded the idea of natural law and based his thinking entirely on the bad nature of human beings.  Machiavelli completely ignored the foundations of state as laid by medieval thinkers and tries to base it on human habit and fear  He emphasised on secular character of the state and completely ignored the concept of ‘divine law’ which prevailed at that time.  Machiavelli first time advocated the idea of a nation state which was completely independent of the influence of the Pope.  Unlike medieval thinkers who stressed upon ethical factors, Machiavelli has material motives in his thoughts.  Finally, he had utilitarian attitude towards politics and morality. 3.5 VIEWS ON HUMAN NATURE Machiavelli’s views on human nature are mentioned in his work ‘The Prince’.  Machiavelli advocates the principle of "Universal Egoism". He did not believe in the essential goodness of human nature, he held that all men are wicked and essentially selfish.  Selfishness and egoism are the chief motive forces of human conduct. Fear is the one motivating and dominating element in life, which is mightier than love.  Machiavelli feels people yearn for security and for that only reason state is necessary.  He says men aim to keep what they already have and desire to acquire more and there are no limits to their desires. CRITICAL EVALUATION  Machiavelli’s depiction of human is wrong. Human beings are not always completely wicked, selfish and cruel.  We have seen personalities such as Mahatma Gandhi, Nelson Mandela, Mother Teresa etc. who were selfless and caring throughout their lives. NIKHIL K GOWDA PSIR NOTES Page 28 NIKHIL GOWDA PSIR NOTES Western Political Thought PSIR  Further he holds that human beings cannot be reformed at all. The darker sides of men can be rectified with proper care, education and moral support. 3.6 VIEWS ON MORALITY AND RELIGION  Machiavelli made a conscious effort to separate morality from politics. He made a deliberate and complete separation between ethics and politics.  In order to acquire material things, Machiavelli goes to the extent of permitting unethical means such as fraud, forgery, trickery, breach of faith and violence by the prince.  In other words, in order to attain the unity of Italy, he was willing to throw the principles of morality to the wind.  In his words, “Let the prince then look after the maintenance of the state. The means will always be deemed honourable and will receive general approbation”.  For Machiavelli, end was of greater importance than means.  Machiavelli considers force as the prime factor for the regulation of affairs in the state. He also emphasises the importance of religion and church which can be used as instruments in creating national customs and habits and preserving peace.  Thus, he uses religion as an instrument for the attainment of the political objectives. CRITICAL EVALUATION Machiavelli’s views on ethics and politics suffer from shortcomings.  Machiavelli permits the use of unethical means under the pretext of protecting national interest.  It is not necessary that the interests of the ruler and the public will always be the same.  Machiavelli’s understanding of human nature is also faulty. Professor Allen criticises Machiavelli as, “he lacked understanding of just what he most of all needed to know”. Despite all the shortcomings, Machiavelli deserves credit for raising a serious question on the rules of conduct of the individuals. He is partially correct in analysing the human nature as well. 3.7 VIEWS ON STATE AND ITS PRESERVATION According to Machiavelli, state was the highest association to which the subject must completely surrender. He said that state came into existence to check the selfish interests of human being and was an artificial creation. NIKHIL K GOWDA PSIR NOTES Page 29 NIKHIL GOWDA PSIR NOTES Western Political Thought PSIR Machiavelli classified states into two categories. Normal state Perverted state  Normal state: In this type of state, citizens are law abiding and faithful. They have a sense of patriotism and are ready to defend their motherland anytime.  Perverted state: The above qualities are absent. It lacks order and control. Machiavelli lays down rules for preservation and strengthening of the state.  Firstly, the state should maintain a reliable army composed of native troops and should not depend on foreign mercenary troops.  Machiavelli considers republican state as the best but under the prevailing conditions in Italy he suggests that monarchy would be a better choice.  Machiavelli’s state is completely secular in nature. He separates church from the state and in fact subordinates church under the state rule.  In the words of Professor Foster, “He attributes to religion an important place in the state; but a place within the state, not above it or beside it”.  The state should have a natural tendency to expand and grow in power.  Finally, Machiavelli asserts that law should occupy a prominent position in the state. Though he regarded force as an important means to control administration, he advocated the need for good and meaningful laws. 3.8 MACHIAVELLI’S SUGGESTIONS TO THE PRINCE “The prince must be a fox and a lion at the same time”. – Niccolo Machiavelli Machiavelli provides numerous suggestions to the ruler of Italy in his work – ‘The Prince’. He was more concerned with the art of government than political philosophy. Some of the suggestions offered by Machiavelli to the prince are as follows:  The prince should crush all opposition to his authority with iron hand and should not hesitate to use ruthless force.  Machiavelli suggests the ruler to be a fox and a lion at the same time. By this he means that ruler should use propaganda and cunningness like a fox as well as courage like a lion whenever the situation demands.  The prince should religion and church to lull people and should publicly show respect to the beliefs of the citizens.  The prince should take quick and firm decisions as hesitation can prove to be harmful.  A good prince should try to maintain peace and prosperity in the country. NIKHIL K GOWDA PSIR NOTES Page 30 NIKHIL GOWDA PSIR NOTES Western Political Thought PSIR  Prince should try to maintain popularity with the people and should earn their love, affection and respect.  The prince should never touch the property and women of his subjects as it would inculcate a feeling of revenge. In his words, “A person readily forgives the murder of his father than the confiscation of his patrimony.”  The prince need not be truthful always. He may make statements based on the interests of his people.  Finally Machiavelli wants the prince to follow expansionist policy. Failure to expand the state will lead to stagnation and ultimate decline. 3.9 AN ASSESSMENT OF MACHIAVELLI Some of the important contributions of Machiavelli to Western philosophy are as follows:  Machiavelli deserves credit for freeing politics from the clutches of ethics and morality. He is the first thinker to assert that there are two distinct standards of morality, one for the state and one at the individual level.  He completely rejected feudal conception of hierarchy that existed in his times. He is the first thinker to speak of a nation-state. This concept is relevant even today.  He was the first thinker to completely denounce the authority of the church. Thus he introduced the concept of secularism in political philosophy.  Machiavelli said that state was an artificial creation and hence rejected all the spiritual and metaphysical theories associated with the creation of the state.  He was a pragmatic and a realistic thinker who gave ideas which were much ahead of his times. He was also the first exponent of ‘power politics’.  In the words of Professor Dunning, “Machiavelli is the first modern political philosopher. It is quite accurate to say that he ends the medieval era as that he begins with the modern”. Shortcomings in Machiavelli “Machiavelli’s political philosophy is narrowly local and narrowly dated.” - Sabine  Machiavelli’s theories and views are bound to be applicable only to Italian states. His main motive was to unify Italy with the help of a strong monarch. It lacks applicability to other types of political structures across the world. That is why Sabine states the above quote.  There is inconsistency in his assumption of the nature of human beings. In ‘The Prince’, he says that man is inherently crooked and selfish whereas in ‘Discourses’ he says men are not utterly wicked.  Machiavelli’s ideas are highly superficial as he failed to build on a proper political theory. He rather focussed more on the art of administration and retention of power. NIKHIL K GOWDA PSIR NOTES Page 31 NIKHIL GOWDA PSIR NOTES Western Political Thought PSIR  Machiavelli attaches undue importance to force. This can lead to revolution as propounded by Aristotle in his theory.  Finally, his principle that ‘ends justify the means’ has been severely condemned. Philosophers like Mahatma Gandhi say that ‘means are as important as the ends’ and his life was a perfect example in that regard. PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS 1. Comment: “The prince must be fox and the lion at the same time”. (Machiavelli) 20 marks 2. Comment: “Power is an end in itself and Machiavelli inquires into the means that are best suited to acquire, retain and expand power, thus separates power from morality, ethics, religion and metaphysics”. (Ebenstein) 20 marks 3. Comment: “Machiavelli’s political philosophy was narrowly local and narrowly dated. (Sabine). 20 marks 4. Discuss the importance of Machiavelli in the history of political thought. Is it correct to say that his theory is narrowly local and narrowly dated? 60 marks 5. Draw parallels between Arthashastra tradition and the ‘Realist’ tradition represented by Machiavelli. 20 marks 6. Explain how Machiavelli’s application of empirical methods to human affairs marks an important stage in the evolution of political science. 20 marks 7. Critically examine Machiavelli’s views on religion and politics. 15 marks NIKHIL K GOWDA PSIR NOTES Page 32 NIKHIL GOWDA PSIR NOTES Western Political Thought PSIR Chapter 4 T HOMAS H OBBES "Covenants without swords are but words and of no strength to secure a man at all." - Thomas Hobbes 4.1 BACKGROUND Thomas Hobbes (1588 – 1679) was a social contract theorist from England. He was the first Englishman who wrote comprehensively on political philosophy and made valuable contributions to it. The philosophical radicalism of the English utilitarian’s and the scientific rationalism of the French Encyclopaedists incorporated in a large measure Hobbes’s mechanical materialism, radical individualism and psychological egoism. By the mid- 20th century Hobbes was acclaimed as “probably the greatest writer on political philosophy that the English speaking people have produced”. 4.2 WORKS  ‘LEVIATHAN’ is the major work by Thomas Hobbes.  This work was a reflection of the civil war in England following the execution of Charles I.  According to Micheal Oakeshott, “the Leviathan is the greatest, perhaps the sole, masterpiece of political philosophy written in the English language”. 4.3 INFLUENCES ON HOBBES Hobbes lived at a time of great constitutional crisis in England when the theory of Divine Right of Kings was fiercely contested by the upholders of the constitutional rule based on popular consent. Some of the influences on his political thoughts are as follows:  The civil war in England in 16th century (also called Puritan revolution) was the main influence on Hobbes. By this he was convinced that man is an animal and all his actions are guided by two considerations: Fear and self interest.  His views on human nature were influenced by Niccolo Machiavelli.  His social contract was influenced by Plato and Hooker.  Jean Bordin was a major influence on his theory on sovereignty.  As the famous statement goes, “Jean Bodin was standing at the gates of modernity but it was Hobbes who entered it.”  Materialistic theory of Hobbes was influenced by Descartes.  Finally, Hobbes was influenced by Euclid’s geometry and Galileo’s mechanical nature of the world. NIKHIL K GOWDA PSIR NOTES Page 33 NIKHIL GOWDA PSIR NOTES Western Political Thought PSIR 4.4 HOBBES ON STATE OF NATURE Hobbes’ political theory is derived from his psychology which in turn is based on his mechanistic conception of nature. What is a state of nature?  According to Hobbes’, prior to the formation of commonwealth or state, there existed state nature. Men in the state of nature were essentially selfish and egoistic.  Contrary to Aristotle and medieval thinkers, who saw human nature as innately social, Hobbes viewed human beings as isolate egoistic, self interested and seeking society as a means to meet their ends.  Unlike most defenders of absolute government, who start out with the gospel for inequality, Hobbes argues that men were naturally equal in mid. This basic equality of men is a principal source of trouble and misery.  He says men have in general equal faculties; they also cherish like hope and desires. It they desire the same thing, which they cannot both obtain, they become enemies and seek to destroy each other.  In the state of nature, therefore men are in a condition of war, of every man against every man and Hobbes adds that the nature of the war consists not in actual fighting “but in the known disposition there to” force and fraud the two cardinal virtues of war, flourish in this atmosphere of perpetual fear and strife fed by three Psychological causes: competition, diffidence and glory.  In such a condition, there is no place for industry, agriculture, navigation , trade; there are no arts or letter; no society , no amenities of civilised living, and worst of all, there is continual fear and danger of violent death, and the life of man solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short’.  According to Hobbes, there can be no distinction between right and wrong in the state of nature. Any conception of right and wrong presupposes a standard of conduct, a common law to judge that conduct and a common law giver. Again there is no distinction between just and unjust in the state of nature, for where there is no common superior, there is no law and where there is no law there cannot be any justice. 4.5 VIEWS ON HUMAN NATURE “The individual has a perpetual and restless desire for power after power that ceases only in death”. – Thomas Hobbes  Unlike earlier philosophers, Hobbes makes individual as the centre of his political thought.  He treats individual not as a rational creature but an embodiment of passions, emotions and desires.  Hobbes believed that men by birth are equal. They have equal desires to prosper. However some may possess better mental faculties and some may be physically superior. NIKHIL K GOWDA PSIR NOTES Page 34 NIKHIL GOWDA PSIR NOTES Western Political Thought PSIR  Further, he adds that an individual has, “a perpetual and restless desire for power after power that ceases only in death”.  It was reason, according to Hobbes, that distinguished human beings from animals. Reason enabled the individual to understand the impressions that sense organs picked up from the external world, and also indicated an awareness of one’s natural passions.  The fact that all individuals sought power distinguished Hobbes from Machiavelli. Machiavelli did not assign any reasons for the bad nature of men but Hobbes tried to explain it in scientific terms. CRITICAL EVALUATION  Hobbes depicts man as irrational in the state of nature but suddenly assigns him the faculty of reason which impels him to create a state. These views are contradictory to one another.  He depicts human beings as antisocial, self centred and egoistic. It is really difficult to understand how such people become social and take initiatives in the evolution of civil society.  Hobbes fails to deduce sensations and perceptions from the motion of particles.  Finally, his assertion that all men are equal with respect to their physical and mental powers doesn’t appeal to our reason. This is contrary to our actual experience.  For example, a knowledgeable person is paid more and a daily wage labourer is paid less. 4.6 THE SOCIAL CONTRACT  Thomas Hobbes believed that state had its origin in the foresight of men in their own preservation and the rational desire to escape from the natural condition of war.  That is why he felt that it is desirable to have a common power which could restrain and protect an individual.  In his theory of social contract, the individual resigns his natural rights and the state assumes them. What are the features of Hobbes’s social contract?  The parties to the social contract are the individuals and not groups of any sort. The sovereign is not part of the contract. In this way, Hobbes promotes despotic or absolute rule  The contract is based on reason and not fear. But Hobbes further points out that the persons who obey and respect the authority purely based on their will are very few.  It is the fear of punishment which drives the effectiveness of a society. In this context he says – “Covenants without swords are but words”.  The contract once concluded by the individuals cannot be revoked without the consent of the sovereign.  Hobbes says the minority has no right to object or oppose the choice of the majority in the selection of the sovereign. NIKHIL K GOWDA PSIR NOTES Page 35 NIKHIL GOWDA PSIR NOTES Western Political Thought PSIR  The contract is concluded primarily for the protection of individual’s life. This implies that the individual has surrendered all his rights except the right to live t the sovereign. The social contract theory of Hobbes has been severely criticised. A political thinker comments, “Instead of becoming a charter of human freedom, the contract becomes in the hands of Hobbes a bond of human slavery”. 4.7 HOBBES ON SOVEREIGNTY The heart of Hobbes’ political philosophy is his theory of sovereignty. He was not the first to use the term sovereignty in its modern sense. It is beyond dispute that before and after Thomas Hobbes the doctrine of sovereignty has been defended by various scholars on various grounds. Hobbes was perhaps the first thinker to defend the sovereignty of the state on scientific grounds Hobbes freed the doctrine of sovereignty of limitations imposed by Jean Bodin and Hugo Grotius. Hobbes saw the sovereign power as undivided, unlimited, inalienable and permanent. The contract created the state and the government simultaneously. The sovereign power was authorised to enact laws as it deemed fit and such laws were legitimate Hobbes was categorical that the powers and authority of the sovereign has to be defined with least ambiguity. The following are some of the major attributes of Hobbesian sovereign. 1. Sovereign is absolute and unlimited and accordingly no conditions implicit or explicit can be imposed on it. It is not limited either by the rights of the subjects or by customary and statutory laws. 2. Sovereignty is not a party to the covenant or contract. A sovereign does not exist prior to the commencement of the contract. Contract was signed between men in the state of nature mainly to escape from a state of war of every man against every man. The contract is irrevocable. 3. The newly created sovereign can do no harm to his subjects. The actions of sovereign cannot be illegal because he himself is the sole source and interpreter of laws. 4. No one can complain that sovereign is acting wrongly because everybody has authorised him to act on his behalf. 5. Sovereign has absolute right to declare war and make peace, to levy taxes and to impose penalties. 6. Sovereign is the ultimate source of all administrative, legislative and judicial authority. According to Hobbes, law is the command of the sovereign. 7. The sovereign has the right to allow or takes away freedom of speech and opinion. 8. The sovereign has to protect the people externally and internally for peace and preservation were basis of the creation of the sovereign or Leviathan. Thus Hobbesian sovereign represents the NIKHIL K GOWDA PSIR NOTES Page 36 NIKHIL GOWDA PSIR NOTES Western Political Thought PSIR ultimate, supreme and single authority in the state and there is no right of resistance against him except in case of self defence. According to Hobbes, any act of disobedience of a subject is unjust because it is against the covenant. Covenants without swords are but mere words. CRITICAL EVALUATION  By granting absolute power to the sovereign, some critics went to the extent of criticising Hobbes as the ‘spiritual father of totalitarian fascism or communism’.  Rousseau describes Hobbes’ theory on sovereignty as both self-contradictory and revolting. However, William Ebenstein, in his well known work ‘Great Political Thinkers’ has opposed this charge on following grounds.  First, government is set up according to Hobbes, by a covenant that transfers all power. This contractual foundation of government is anathema to the modern totalitarians.  Second, Hobbes assigns to the state a prosaic business; to maintain order and security for the benefit of the citizens. By contrast, the aim of the modern totalitarian state is anti- individualistic and anti hedonistic.  Third Hobbesian state is authoritarian, not totalitarian. Hobbes’ authoritarianism lacks one of the most characteristic features of the modern totalitarian state: inequality before the law, and the resultant sense of personal insecurity.  Fourth, Hobbes holds that the sovereign may be one man or an assembly of men, whereas modern totalitarianism is addicted to the leadership principle.  Fifth, Hobbes recognises that war is one of the two main forces that drive men to set up a state. But whenever he speaks of war, it is defensive war, and there is no glorification of war in the Leviathan. By contrast, totalitarians look on war as something lightly desirable and imperialist war as the highest form of national life. 4.8 INDIVIDUALISM AND ABSOLUTISM IN HOBBES What is individualism? Individualism is a socialist theory favouring freedom of action for individuals over collective or state control. According to this view, no individual shall be made to suffer in order to benefit any larger unit of the society. How is individualism reflected in Hobbes’ theories?  Hobbes allows the individual to resist the sovereign if the latter attacks his / her life.  According to Hobbes, the individual may also refuse to serve as a soldier which might endanger his life.  Hobbes doesn’t think about collective will or common will. Hence we can see that Hobbes made the individual as the centre of his thought.  Professor Sabine comments, “Individualism is thoroughly modern element in Hobbes. Hobbes was at once the complete utilitarian and a complete individualist”. NIKHIL K GOWDA PSIR NOTES Page 37 NIKHIL GOWDA PSIR NOTES Western Political Thought PSIR What is absolutism? ‘Absolutism’ is a form of rule in which all powers of governance are held by a single entity. How is absolutism reflected in Hobbes’ theories?  Initially, Hobbes made the individual centre of his thought. After raising the individual to a certain height, he felt it would be difficult to keep a check on their activities.  That is why he moots for the need for a supreme power which prevents the individual from degeneration.  He observes, “Covenants without swords are but words”. This means that only the fear of punishment brings order in the state.  By the above arguments it can be said that – Hobbes started as an individualist but ended as an absolutist. 4.9 CONTRIBUTIONS OF HOBBES TO WESTERN POLITICAL THOUGHT  Thomas Hobbes was the first thinker to have offered a theory of absolute sovereignty. He freed the sovereign of all the shackles. This makes clearly a modern thinker.  He conceived state as a human created institution. By this he denounced the metaphysical concept of divine rights.  He was a great individualist as he emphasised that state is merely a means for the promotion of the interests of the individual.  Utilitarianism which was a logical corollary of his individualism was another important contribution of Hobbes.  Hobbes applied true scientific methods in the study of political science. He also studied the true nature of human beings and suggested measures to control them in a state.  Hobbes brought morals in par with the politics.  He emphasised on the doctrine of law and concept of positive law which has to be appreciated.  Finally, as commented by Professor Dunning, “the idea of contract of the individual with individual was one of the most distinctive innovations of Hobbes”. IMPORTANT QUOTES BY HOBBES  Covenants without swords are but words of no strength to secure a man at all.  Curiosity is the lust of the mind.  No arts; no letters; no society; and which is worst of all, continual fear and danger of violent death; and the life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.  The condition of man... is a condition of war of everyone against everyone.  It is not wisdom but Authority that makes a law.  Leisure is the mother of philosophy.  Force and fraud are in war the two cardinal virtues. NIKHIL K GOWDA PSIR NOTES Page 38 NIKHIL GOWDA PSIR NOTES Western Political Thought PSIR  Science is the knowledge of consequences and dependence of one fact upon another.  Words are wise men’s counters, they do but reckon with them, but they are the money of fools. PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS 1. Comment: “Hobbes relieved sovereignty completely from the disabilities which Bodin had inconsistently left standing.” (Sabine) 20 marks 2. Comment: “Liberty of freedom signifies properly the absence of opposition in external impediments of motion”. (Hobbes) 30 marks 3. Comment: “Hobbes starts as an individualist but ends as an absolutist”. 20 marks 4. Comment: Hobbes as an individualist. 15 marks 5. Comment in 150 words: "Covenants without swords are but words and of no strength to secure a man at all." (Hobbes) 10 marks 6. “How would I and my fellow human beings behave if we were to find ourselves in a state of nature and what does this behaviour tell us about our innate predispositions?”. (Hobbes) 10 marks 7. Comment on the following: Hobbesian notion of Political Obligation. 10 marks NIKHIL K GOWDA PSIR NOTES Page 39 NIKHIL GOWDA PSIR NOTES Western Political Thought PSIR Chapter 5 J OHN L OCKE “All mankind... being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty or possessions.” – John Locke 5.1 BACKGROUND John Locke (1632-1704) was philosopher and a social contract theorist from Britain. He is widely regarded as the ‘Father of Liberalism’. His writings influenced thinkers like Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, many Scottish Enlightenment thinkers, as well as the American revolutionaries. He is often regarded as the founder of a school of thought known as British Empiricism, and he made foundational contributions to modern theories of limited, liberal government. 5.2 WORKS  Locke wrote as many as 35 books in his lifetime. The most notable work of Locke is ‘Two treaties of government’.  His other major works include ‘Essays concerning human understanding’, ‘Fundamental constitution concerning California’ and ‘Letters on toleration’. 5.3 INFLUENCES ON LOCKE  Locke was a witness to a glorious revolution which restored monarchy in England. He was a witness to the Bloodless Revolution which was peaceful. That is why he developed a positive attitude towards human nature in his theories.  In addition, Locke was influenced by a number of earlier and contemporary thinkers like Filmer and Hobbes. Locke was influenced by Earl of Shaftsbury. Through this contact he gained experience in politics.  Locke had a deep impact of Hooker and borrowed the theory of consent and the theory of contract from him.  In short, Locke collected ideas from different sources and presented them as a plausible political philosophy. 5.4 LOCKE ON HUMAN NATURE Locke’s views on human nature can be derived from his work – ‘Essays concerning human understanding’.  According to Locke, human beings are basically decent and endowed with a natural social instinct. They are not always selfish.  He holds that humans are peace-loving and not quarrelsome. NIKHIL K GOWDA PSIR NOTES Page 40 NIKHIL GOWDA PSIR NOTES Western Political Thought PSIR  Locke asserts that all human beings are equal, in the moral sense and every individual is endowed certain natural rights such as right of life, liberty and property.  Thus it can be observed that Locke’s notion of human nature is just the opposite as that of Thomas Hobbes. CRITICAL EVALUATION  Locke fails to provide any scientific basis for his views on human nature.  His assumption that humans are peace-loving need not be true always. The world has witnessed numerous wars and violence which were initiated by the cruel nature of humans.  In the words of Professor Wayper, “His views are nothing like so profound ad certainly no like as consistent as that of Hobbes”. 5.5 VIEWS ON STATE OF NATURE  In order to explain the origin of political power, Locke began with a description of the state of nature which for him was one of perfect equality and freedom regulated by the laws of nature.  Locke’s description of state of nature was not as gloomy and pessimistic as Hobbes’. The individuals in the Lockean state of nature were naturally free and become a political subject out of their free will.  The state of nature was not one of licence, for though the individual was free from any superior power, he was subject to the laws of nature.  Fro