PMF History Notes 2024 Updated (Civil Disobedience Movement)

https:/ /upscpdf.com/ 9. Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-34) 9.1. Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-34) During the Lahore session of Congress (1929), it was declared that a civil disobedience movement would be initiated. However, the detai...

https:/ /upscpdf.com/ 9. Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-34) 9.1. Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-34) During the Lahore session of Congress (1929), it was declared that a civil disobedience movement would be initiated. However, the detailed plan of action was not outlined. It authorised the Congress Working Committee (CWC) to launch a Civil Disobedience program, including non-payment of taxes, whenever deemed appropriate. Gandhi’s Eleven Demands On 25 January 1930, the Viceroy's speech to the Assembly made it clear that the British government had no interest in conceding Dominion Status to India anytime soon. On 31st January, Gandhi sent a letter to Viceroy Irwin stating eleven demands. Gandhi stated that if the demands were not fulfilled by 11 March, the Congress would launch a civil disobedience cam- paign. The eleven demands were: 1. Reduce the rupee-sterling ratio to 1s 4d (1 shilling and 4 pence) 2. Reduce land revenue by half and make it a subject of legislative control 3. Abolish the salt tax and the government's monopoly on salt 4. Reduce salaries of highest-grade services and military expenditure by half. 5. Release all political prisoners. 6. Protect Indian textiles by imposing a customs duty on foreign cloth. 7. Reserve coastal shipping for Indians. 8. Prohibition of intoxicants 9. Reform in the Criminal Investigation Department 10. Accept Postal Reservation Bill 11. Issue license of arms to citizens for self-protection To many observers, including J. Nehru, this set of demands appeared to be a step back from the goal of Purna Swaraj. On 2nd March 1930, Gandhi sent a letter to Lord Irwin. The letter explained why he considered British 203 rule in India a ‘curse.’ Furthermore, he emphasised his desire to convert the British mindset through MIH-II – Post-1857 nonviolence, thereby allowing them to understand the evil they had perpetrated against India. In this letter, Gandhi also informed Lord Irwin about his intention to begin the Salt March to break the Salt Law if the British government did not respond to his request to remove the Law restricting private salt production. Irwin was unwilling to negotiate. So, Mahatma Gandhi started the salt march on March 12, 1930. https:/ /upscpdf.com/ CWC Meeting (February 1930) In February 1930, the Congress Working Committee (CWC) met at Sabarmati Ashram and entrusted Gandhiji with the responsibility of launching the civil disobedience movement. The entire Congress organisation was placed at his disposal. Dandi March (Salt March) (12 March 1930 – 6 April 1930) Under colonial rule, the British government introduced the Salt law in 1882, wherein the colonial state established a monopoly over the production, gathering, storing, and even selling of salt. Indians were forced to buy salt from the government with heavy taxes. Gandhi believed the colonial state had no right to monopolise something as essential as salt. In March, Gandhi launched the civil disobedience movement by breaking the unjust salt law. Why the Salt Satyagraha? Gandhi chose salt as the symbol of protest due to its vital importance and the unjust taxation imposed by the government. Salt was a vital item of food (daily necessity) that was consumed by the rich and the poor alike. The tax on salt and the government monopoly over its production revealed the most oppressive face of British rule. Gandhi highlighted the cruelty of the salt tax, which was sometimes as high as fourteen times the value of the salt itself. According to Gandhi, if people living near areas with natural salt use it for their personal consump- tion, the government destroys the salt to prevent the use of untaxed salt. Gandhi believed that the government has no right to destroy what nature has produced. - On March 12, 1930, Gandhi started a march with 78 followers from Sabarmati Ashram in Ahmedabad - to the coastal town of Dandi (Navsari district) near Surat. - ↑ Large crowds joined the march each day as Gandhi walked through various villages. The journey covered 240 miles (~390 km) over twenty-four days, and they reached Dandi on April 5, 1930. Sarojini Naidu, Dr Sumant, Abbas Tyabji, and Mithuben Petit joined the Dandi March in Dandi. On the morning of 6th April, Mahatma Gandhi and his followers broke the Salt Act by producing salt from seawater. The violation of the salt law was viewed as a symbol of the Indian people’s resolve to 204 not live under British-made laws and, therefore, under British rule. With this, the civil disobedience movement launched, and parallel salt marches were conducted in other parts of the country. MIH-II – Post-1857 Spread of the Movement - 6 Malabar K. Kelappan, the leader of Vaikom Satyagraha, led a procession of 33 satyagrahis from Kozhikode to Payyannur, the southern tip of North Malabar. - - https:/ /upscpdf.com/ P. Krishna Pillai participated in the Salt March from Kozhikode to Payyannur. He defended the national flag when the police attacked.  Krishna Pillai and Sharma fought to get the flag back from the police. Eventually, Krishna Pillai got the flag, and Sharma got the flagstick. Even though the authorities tried their best, they didn't give up. Tamil Nadu - The Vedaranyam March: In April 1930, C. Rajagopalachari started a march from Trichinopoly (Tiruchi- --- rappalli) to Vedaranyam on the Tanjore coast to break the salt law. Andhra - - & In Andhra, the military-style camps, known as sibirams, were set up to serve as salt satyagraha head- - quarters. Satyagrahis marched to coastal centres to break the salt law. - X Orissa Gopabandhu Choudhury was elected as the head of the Civil Disobedience Movement in Orissa. On - --- 6th April 1930, Gopabandhu Chaudhury and Acharya Harihar Das led the first batch of 21 volunteers from Swaraj Ashram, Cuttack to Inchudi. - On 9th April, Gopabandhu was arrested, and Acharya Harihar Das piloted the batch. On 13th April, - Acharya Harihar, with his followers, picked up some salt and broke the salt law. -- ↑ Assam To prevent the students from participating in the Civil Disobedience Movement, J.R. Cunningham, the then Director of Public Information of Assam, came up with the Cunningham circular. It required - students to sign a declaration pledging their loyalty to the British Raj and renouncing any participation - - - - - in anti-government activities. Students of Assam raised strong protests against such harmful discrimination by the government, and as a result of this, picketing was witnessed in various schools in Assam. Radiativ - North-eastern India Rani Gaidinliu, at age 13, responded to Gandhi's call and raised the banner of rebellion against foreign 205 rule. She was captured in 1932 and sentenced to life imprisonment. She was released only in 1947 by - - - - - the Government of Free India. - MIH-II – Post-1857 - North-West Frontier Province In the extreme north-western corner of India, under the leadership of Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan / Badshah Khan (Frontier Gandhi), the Pathans organised the society of Khudai Khidmatgars (Servants - of God) known as Red Shirts. They pledged non-violence and played an important role in the civil --- - https:/ /upscpdf.com/ disobedience movement. In Peshawar on 23 April 1930, the arrest of Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan pro- - voked a massive upsurge. - In Peshawar, two platoons of Garhwali soldiers led by Chandra Singh Garhwali refused to open fire ---- on non-violent mass demonstrators even though it meant facing court martial and long terms of - - imprisonment. This episode showed that nationalism was beginning to penetrate the Indian army, the chief instrument of British rule. Dharasana (Gujarat) - After Gandhi's arrest on 5th May 1930, Abbas Tyabji was given the charge of the Salt Satyagraha. On - - 7th May, Abbas Tyabji initiated Dharasana Satyagraha to raid Dharasana Salt Works in Gujarat and ad- - - - dressed the satyagrahis along with Kasturba Gandhi. - On May 21, 1930, Sarojini Naidu, Imam Sahib and Manilal (Gandhi’s son) raided the Dharasana Salt ----- Works. Sholapur (Maharashtra) After Gandhi's arrest, the industrial city of Sholapur saw a textile workers' strike, attacks on liquor shops, police outposts and government buildings and the establishment of a virtual parallel govern- ment for a few days. [UPSC CSE 2015] Who of the following organised a march on the Tanjore coast to break the Salt Law in April 1930? a) V.O Chidambaram Pillai b) C. Rajagopalachari c) K. Kamaraj d) Annie Besant Answer: Option B Violent Confrontations Towards the end of April, as the colonial government began arresting Congress leaders one by one, violent clashes erupted in many parts of the country.  When Abdul Ghaffar Khan was arrested in April 1930, angry crowds demonstrated in the streets 206 of Peshawar, and the city was virtually in the hands of the crowds for more than a week.  When Mahatma Gandhi was arrested, industrial workers in Sholapur attacked police posts, MIH-II – Post-1857 municipal buildings, law courts and railway stations – all structures that symbolised British rule. Defiance of Law https:/ /upscpdf.com/ The movement spread rapidly. Everywhere in the country, people joined hartals, demonstrations, and campaigns to boycott foreign goods. Apart from the officially sanctioned nationalist campaign, there were numerous other streams of protest.  Peasants breached the colonial forest laws.  Factory workers went on strike.  Lawyers boycotted British courts.  Students refused to attend government-run educational institutions. After Gandhi’s arrest on 5th May, the Congress Working Committee sanctioned: ----  Non-payment of land revenue in Ryotwari areas. - -  No-chaukidar-tax campaign in the Zamindari - areas.  Violation of forest laws in the Central Provinces. --- - The people participated in the defiance of forest laws in Maharashtra, Karnataka and the Central Provinces and refused to pay the rural chaukidari tax in Eastern India. In many parts of the country, peasants refused to pay land revenue and rent, resulting in the confiscation of their lands. No-revenue and no-rent campaign ~ In the U.P., a no-revenue, no-rent campaign was organised. The call for no revenue was made to the zamindars, asking them to abstain from paying revenue to the government. Similarly, the call for no rent was directed towards the tenants, asking them to refrain from paying rent to the zamindars. However, since the zamindars were predominantly loyal to the government, the movement eventually became a no-rent struggle. Government's attitude in 1930 The Government's attitude throughout 1930 was ambivalent. The authorities faced a dilemma about whether to suppress the movement or allow it to continue. If the government allowed the movement to continue, it would appear weak and unable to enforce its laws. On the other hand, if the government suppressed the movement, it would be seen as oppressive and violent towards non-violent protestors. Even Gandhiji's arrest came after much vacillation. However, once the repression began, the govern- ment used all power to suppress the movement. The government issued ordinances to curb civil liberties and gave provincial governments the freedom to ban civil disobedience organizations. 207 Efforts Towards Establishing a Truce MIH-II – Post-1857 July 1930 In July, the Viceroy, Lord Irwin, suggested a Round Table Conference and reiterated the goal of Do- minion Status. He also accepted the suggestion of the forty members of the Central Legislature that https:/ /upscpdf.com/ Tej Bahadur Sapru and M.R. Jayakar should be allowed to explore the possibilities of peace between Congress and the government. Sapru tried to convince the congress leaders to attend the Round Table Conference but failed. August 1930 In August, Jawaharlal and Motilal Nehru were taken to Yeravada jail to meet Gandhiji and discuss the possibility of a settlement. However, the Congress leaders reiterated the following demands: 1. Right of secession from Britain 2. Complete National government with control over defence and finance 3. An independent tribunal to settle Britain's financial claims The British government rejected these demands, causing the talks to break down. As a result, Congress maintained its stance of not participating in the Round Table Conference. Response of Different Sections Women: A notable feature of the movement was the wide participation of women.  Initially, Gandhi was opposed to women's participation. However, Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay - persuaded Gandhiji to allow women to join the movement.  Thousands of women came out of their homes to participate in satyagraha. They took an active part in picketing shops selling foreign cloth or liquor. They marched shoulder to shoulder with the men in processions. -  However, women's participation in revolutionary nationalism, especially in Bengal, came under sharp attack. Rabindranath Tagore wrote a novel, Char Adhyay, criticising such 'unfeminine' be- - -- - haviour. Muslims: Compared to the non-cooperation movement, Muslim participation remained low. How- - - ever, the participation of Muslims was not insignificant.  A large number of Muslims of the North-West Frontier Province participated in the movement. - - -  Middle-class Muslim participation was significant in some districts of Bengal. - -  The Muslim weaving community of Bihar, Delhi and Lucknow also participated in the movement. - => -- Urban Intelligentsia: The support of urban intelligentsia to Gandhian nationalism was less than what - it had been during the non-cooperation movement. Only a few lawyers gave up their practice, and a 208 -- few students joined 'national schools' instead of government-controlled institutions. This was because - the revolutionary nationalism attracted the educated youth. - - MIH-II – Post-1857 1 Peasants and Industrialists: There was a massive peasant mobilisation and considerable support from the business groups, at least during the initial stages. -- -- Tribals: The tribal people participated in the defiance of forest laws in Maharashtra, Karnataka and the > Central Provinces. Role of Women https:/ /upscpdf.com/ A large number of women participated in the salt march. In different places, women like Kasturba Gan- dhi, Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay, Hansa Mehta, Amina Tyabji, and Rukmini Lakshmipathy broke the salt laws.  On 6th April, Gandhi violated the salt law in Dandi, accompanied by Sarojini Naidu and Mithuben Petit.  On 9th April, Gandhi collected the salt granules along with Mithuben Petit at Bhimrad on the Gu- jarat coast.  After Gandhi and Abbas Tyabji were arrested, Sarojini Naidu took over and led the march and raid on the salt works at Dharsana.  Avantikabai Gokhale and Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay organised salt satyagraha at multiple loca- tions, including Bombay Chowpatty. Government’s Response The Government’s reply to the national struggle was the same as before —an effort to crush it through ruthless repression, lathi charges and firing on unarmed crowds of men and women. Over 90,000 Satyagrahis, including Gandhi and other Congress leaders, were imprisoned. South India experienced repression in its most severe form. The police often beat up men just for wearing khadi or Gandhi caps. The Congress was declared illegal. The nationalist press was gagged through strict censorship of news. - Gandhi on the World Stage - Press coverage of the Dandi March in the United States of America and Britain brought the Indian struggle for freedom to the forefront. - Various publication houses in the United States and Europe started printing stories about the salt march. In 1931, Time Magazine declared Gandhi the Man of the Year and did a feature cover on him. Significance of Salt March  The Salt March brought Mahatma Gandhi to world attention. The European and American press widely covered the march. -  It was the first nationalist activity in which women participated in large numbers. 209 -  It made the British realise that their rule wouldn't last indefinitely, and they had to consider giving some - MIH-II – Post-1857 - power to the Indians. - - -  British cloth imports experienced a spectacular collapse due to picketing and the global impact of -- - the depression. Suspension of Civil Disobedience (March-December 1931) https:/ /upscpdf.com/ - In 1930, the British Government summoned the first Round Table Conference in London, bringing together Indian leaders and representatives of the British Government to discuss the Simon Com- mission Report. However, the INC boycotted the Conference, and its proceedings were unsuccessful. Holding a conference on Indian affairs without the Congress was seen as futile, akin to staging Ramlila without the presence of Rama. Hence, the government made attempts to negotiate an agreement with Congress so that it would attend the Round Table Conference. - Gandhi-Irwin Pact (Delhi Pact) On 25 January 1931, the Viceroy announced the unconditional release of Gandhiji and all the other members of the Congress Working Committee (CWC). The CWC authorised Gandhiji to initiate discussions with the Viceroy. Gandhi initiated a talk with Irwin on 14 February 1931, which culminated on 5 March in the Delhi Pact, popularly known as the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. By this pact: The government agreed:  To release those political prisoners who had remained non-violent.  To remit penalties not yet collected.  To return confiscated lands not yet sold to third parties. The government conceded:  The right to make salt for consumption in villages along the coast.  The right to peaceful picketing of liquor and foreign cloth shops. The Congress:  Suspended the Civil Disobedience Movement  Agreed to participate in the Second Round Table Conference. The following demands of the Congress were not accepted by the British:  A public inquiry into police excesses  The commutation of the death sentences of Bhagat Singh and his comrades. Many Congress leaders, particularly the younger, left-wing section, opposed the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. They objected because the government did not concede any significant nationalist demands, including the commutation of the death sentence of Bhagat Singh and his comrades. 210 However, Gandhiji suspended the civil disobedience movement. This was because: ⑮  Gandhi’s concept of satyagraha included giving the opponent every chance to show a change of heart. MIH-II – Post-1857  Gandhi’s strategy was based on the understanding that a mass movement must necessarily be of short duration and could not go on forever, for the people's capacity to sacrifice was not endless. - Karachi Session (1931) In a special session of the Congress in Karachi in March 1931: https:/ /upscpdf.com/  The Gandhi-Irwin Pact was endorsed. -  Gandhiji was authorised to represent the Congress at the Second Round Table Conference. Revival of Civil Disobedience (1932-34) Gandhiji went to England in September 1931 to attend the Second Round Table Conference. How- ever, despite his powerful advocacy, the British government refused to concede the basic nationalist demand for freedom based on the immediate grant of Dominion Status. The deliberations of the conference failed to bring about a consensus between Gandhiji and other Indian participants on separate electorates and other safeguards for Muslims and other minorities. Meanwhile, Lord Willingdon became the viceroy in April 1931. He believed that a major error had been made in signing a truce with the Congress and was fully prepared to crush the Congress. Lord Willingdon drafted a series of ordinances to suppress the nationalist movement. He violated the Gandhi-Irwin Pact by repressing Congress and other nationalists. In December, he arrested Jawahar- lal Nehru and Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan. Gandhiji returned to Bombay on 28 December 1931, and the next day, CWC decided to resume civil disobedience. The Congress revived the civil disobedience movement on 4 January 1932. Repression by Government On 4 January 1932, Gandhiji and other leaders of the Congress were arrested, and the Congress declared illegal. Mahatma Gandhi and Sardar Patel were imprisoned and sent to Yerwada Jail. The normal working of laws was suspended, and the administration carried on through special ordi- nances. The police indulged in naked terror and committed innumerable atrocities on the freedom fighters. Over a lakh of satyagrahis were arrested; the lands, houses, and other property of thousands were confiscated. Nationalist literature was banned, and nationalist newspapers were again placed under censorship. Despite severe repressive measures taken by the Government, the movement continued for about a year and a half. In the end, the government succeeded in suppressing the movement. Gandhi officially suspended the movement in May 1933 and withdrew it in April 1934. 211 Assessment of the Civil Disobedience Movement Though some scholars opine that Gandhi's decision to suspend the civil disobedience movement as MIH-II – Post-1857 agreed under the Gandhi-Irwin pact was a retreat, it was not so. The move was warranted due to some practical reasons. In the last few months of 1930:  Incidents of peasant and tribal militancy increased, and violence multiplied in many areas.  There was a marked decline in enthusiasm and support among urban traders, many of whom started selling foreign goods. https:/ /upscpdf.com/  The ruthless seizure of property by the government reduced the nationalistic ardour of the rich peasants.  Almost all leading congress leaders were in jail. Though the Congress was forced to withdraw the movement, its prestige among the masses remained high. In many parts of the country, the political prisoners were given a hero's welcome upon their release from jail. The movement had not succeeded in winning freedom, but it had succeeded in further politicising the people and further deepening the social roots of the freedom struggle. Gandhiji negotiated with the Viceroy on equal terms and, thus, in one stroke, enhanced the prestige of the Congress as an equal to the Government. Non-Cooperation Movement (NCM) (1920-22) Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-34) MPeople were asked to refuse cooperation with the - People were asked to break colonial laws British - -Significant participation- of Muslims Compared to the NCM, Muslim participation re- -- mained low Women joined the movement and participated in Compared to the NCM, women's participation -- - - picketing before the shops selling foreign cloth and was high - liquor. Peasants, mostly from U.P. and Bihar, joined the Compared to the NCM, the participation of peas- --- - movement ants was high. The number of people imprisoned during the Civil Disobedience Movement was estimated to be over - 90,000, which was more than three times the num- - ber of imprisonments that occurred - during the - - Non-Cooperation Movement of 1920-22. 9.2. Karachi Session of Congress (1931) - In March 1931, a Congress session was held in Karachi to endorse the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. Sardar - Patel was elected as the President of the Congress at the Session. Despite Gandhi's efforts to save their lives, Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru were executed six 212 days before the session. MIH-II – Post-1857 The people were angry that Gandhi had signed the pact with Irwin even after their execution. Through- out Gandhi’s route to Karachi, he was greeted with black flag demonstrations. Highlights of the session https:/ /upscpdf.com/ - The Congress expressed its admiration for the bravery and sacrifice of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru, who were executed on March 23, 1931, while also voicing its disapproval of political vio- lence. - The Congress endorsed the Gandhi-Irwin pact and reiterated the goal of Purna Swaraj. Gandhiji was authorised to represent the Congress at the Second Round Table Conference. - This was the first time Congress defined what Swaraj would mean for the masses. The Karachi Reso- lution highlighted the need to end the exploitation of the masses and make economic freedom inter- twined with political freedom. Resolution on Fundamental Rights and the National Economic Programme - The Karachi session passed the resolution on Fundamental Rights and the National Economic Pro- - gramme, also known as the Karachi Resolution. The resolution was drafted by Jawaharlal Nehru and - - revised by Gandhi. - The resolution reflected the growth of socialist ideas in the country. The resolution declared: "In order - to end the exploitation of the masses, political freedom must include real economic freedom of the - starving millions". The resolution demonstrated the commitment of Congress to the civil, political, and economic rights of the people. The resolution guaranteed the basic civil rights: -  Free speech, free press, and free assembly - Y -  Equality before the law, irrespective of caste, creed or gender - =  Neutrality of the state regarding religious matters -  Free and compulsory primary education - --  Elections based on universal adult franchise. - The resolution promised:  Peasants: Substantial reduction in rent and revenue, exemption from rent in case of uneconomic holdings, and relief of agricultural indebtedness and control of money lending.  Workers: Better conditions for workers, including a living wage, limited hours of work and protec- tion of women workers, the right to organise and form unions by workers and peasants  Nationalisation: State ownership or control of key industries, mines and means of transport [UPSC CSE 2010] For the Karachi session of Indian National Congress in 1931 presided over 213 by Sardar Patel, who drafted the resolution on Fundamental Rights and economics Pro- gramme? MIH-II – Post-1857 a) Mahatma Gandhi b) Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru c) Dr Rajendra Prasad d) Dr B. R. Ambedkar https:/ /upscpdf.com/ Answer: Option B 9.3. Round Table Conferences (RTCs) Before the Simon Commission submitted its report in May 1930, the Labour Party headed by Mac- Donald came to power in England in 1929. Lord Irwin's declaration of October 1929 disclosed the Labour Government's intentions to draw a new constitution after consulting Indian leaders. The three Round Table Conferences of Indian leaders and spokesmen of the British government were held in London from 1930 to 1932. The INC participated only in the second conference. In 1930, the British Government summoned the first Round Table Conference in London, bringing together Indian leaders and representatives of the British Government to discuss the Simon Com- mission Report. First Round Table Conference (November 1930 to January 1931) The First Round Table Conference was held from November 1930 to January 1931. During this pe- riod, INC was involved in civil disobedience and boycotted the conference. Representatives of British political parties and 74 Indian delegates, including 58 members representing various parties and interests and 16 members representing princely states, were invited to attend the conference. Important Participants of the First RTC Depressed classes B. R. Ambedkar, R. Srinivasan Hindu Mahasabha M.R. Jayakar, B.S. Moonje Liberals Tej Bahadur Sapru, C. Y. Chintamani Muslim opinion Agha Khan, Mohammed Ali Jinnah, Maulana Mohammad Ali Jauhar, Muhammad Shafi, Fazlal Huq Sikhs Sardar Sampuran Singh Indian Christians K. T. Paul Justice Party Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar, Bhaskarrao Jadhav and Sir A.P. Patro Labour N.M. Joshi 214 Recommendations MIH-II – Post-1857 1. The formation of an All-India Federation of the British Indian Provinces and the Indian States. 2. The establishment of a responsible government at the centre with certain safeguards for the transi- tional period. Participation of INC https:/ /upscpdf.com/ The proceedings of the first conference were unsuccessful, and the British government acknowledged that INC's participation was necessary for any constitutional advance. Hence, the government at- tempted to negotiate an agreement with Congress so that it would attend the Round Table Confer- ence. After signing the Gandhi-Irwin Pact on March 5, 1931, Congress suspended the Civil Disobe- dience Movement and agreed to participate in the Second Round Table Conference. Events Date Outcome Delhi Proposals March 20, 1927 Muslim leaders agreed to joint electorates with certain con- ditions. Delhi Manifesto November 2, 1929 National leaders insisted that the RTC should focus on imple- menting dominion status. Delhi Pact 5 March 1931 Congress suspended the Civil Disobedience Movement and agreed to participate in the Second Round Table Conference. Second Round Table Conference (September to December 1931) The second Round Table Conference was held from September 7 to December 1, 1931. Gandhi attended the conference as the sole representative of the Congress. Nothing much was expected from the conference because:  In August 1931, MacDonald's Labour Cabinet resigned, and a new coalition government (national government) dominated by the Conservatives was formed under him.  Willingdon succeeded Lord Irwin in Delhi in April 1931. Most of the prominent personalities of the first session returned to attend the second session. However, there were many new faces. Besides Gandhi (INC), Muhammed Iqbal, Madan Mohan Malaviya, Ali Imam, Mrs. Sarojini Naidu (Indian women), G.D. Birla (Industry), and S.K. Datta (Indian Christian) attended the Conference for the first time. Disagreement on Representation of Congress In the conference, Gandhi claimed that Congress represented all of India. This claim came under chal- lenge from three parties: 1. From the Muslim League, which claimed to stand for the interests of the Muslim minority. 2. From the Princes, who claimed that the Congress had no stake in their territories. 215 3. From B.R. Ambedkar, who argued that Gandhiji and the Congress did not really represent the lowest castes. MIH-II – Post-1857 Deadlock over Separate Electorate Separate electorates were demanded by the Muslims, depressed classes, Christians, and Anglo-Indi- ans. However, the participants disagreed on separate electorates. Gandhi did not support the idea of having a separate electorate for the Depressed Classes. https:/ /upscpdf.com/ The second session ended on 1 December 1931 and made recommendations on matters such as: 1. The composition of the Indian federation 2. The structure of the federal judiciary 3. The mode of accession of states to the federation, and 4. The distribution of financial resources. End of the Session At the end of the session, MacDonald announced two Muslim-majority provinces: the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) and Sindh. He also mentioned the possibility of a unilateral British Com- munal Award if Indians couldn't agree. Mahatma Gandhi returned to India disappointed as no agreement could be reached on the demand for freedom on the basis of the immediate grant of dominion status and on the separate electorates. Third Round Table Conference The third Round Table Conference was held between November 17 and December 24, 1932. Only forty-six delegates, carefully invited by the Conservative government in Britain, attended this session. The INC and the Labour Party from Britain did not attend it. Like the two first conferences, little was achieved.  B. R. Ambedkar, M.R. Jayakar, Agha Khan, Tej Bahadur Sapru, N.M. Joshi attended all three Round Table Conferences.  M.A. Jinnah was not invited to the Third Round Table Conference. Aftermath of the Round Table Conferences The recommendations of the Round Table Conferences were documented in a White Paper. It was published in March 1933 and debated in parliament directly afterwards. A Joint Parliamentary Committee of both houses of the British Parliament was formed to analyse the recommendations and formulate a new Act for India. The Committee submitted its report on 22 No- vember 1934. A bill based on this report was passed on 2 August 1935, and after receiving the Royal Assent, it became the Government of India Act of 1935. Events Time Period Viceroy British PM Simon Com- 1927 Lord Irwin Stanley Baldwin 216 mission MIH-II – Post-1857 First RTC November 1930 to January 1931 Lord Irwin Ramsay MacDonald (labour party) Second RTC September to December 1931 Lord Willingdon Ramsay MacDonald (national government) Third RTC November to December 1932 Lord Willingdon Ramsay MacDonald https:/ /upscpdf.com/ (national government) [UPSC CSE 2009] Consider the following statements: 1. The discussions in the Third Round Table Conference eventually led to the passing of the Govern- ment of India Act of 1935. 2. The Government of India Act of 1935 provided for the establishment of an all-India Federation to be based on the Union of the provinces of British India and the Princely States. Which of the statement(s) given above is are correct? Choose the correct answer from the following options: a) 1 only b) 2 only c) Both 1 and 2 d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer: Option C 9.4. Gandhi, Ambedkar and British Policy on the Communal Award Communal award On 16 August 1932, British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald introduced the Communal Award. The Award declared the Depressed Classes as a minority and thus extended a separate electorate to them. The British government stated that they announced the Communal Award because Indian leaders could not agree on the representation of the Depressed Classes during the Second Round Table Con- ference. According to them, the award was intended to protect the interests of the Depressed Classes. Recommendations of Communal Award  To double the existing seats in provincial legislatures.  To retain the system of separate electorate for the minorities  To recognise depressed classes as minority community and make them entitled to the right of a sep- arate electorate.  To reserve three per cent of seats for women within the various communal categories in all provincial 217 legislatures except in the North West Frontier Provinces. MIH-II – Post-1857  To allocate seats to labour, landlords, traders and industrialists.  To grant weightage to Muslims in provinces where they were in the minority. Thus, the Communal Award accorded a separate electorate to Muslims, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo- Indians, Europeans, depressed classes and distinct regional groups (such as the Marathas in the Bom- bay Presidency - 7 seats). https:/ /upscpdf.com/ Double Vote: The Communal Award gave the Depressed Classes voting rights along with caste Hindus in the general constituencies and an extra vote in 71 special Depressed Classes constituencies for 20 years.  The concept of the Communal Award was related to the representation of different communities in the provincial legislatures. The Award reserved 71 seats for the depressed class in provincial legisla- ture. Stand of Gandhi (Congress) on Separate Electorate Gandhi and the Congress Party, despite concern for the rights of the Depressed Classes, did not sup- port the idea of having a separate electorate for the Depressed Classes. Gandhi believed that separate electorates would create division and disrupt society. He argued that this separation would hinder the integration of lower castes into mainstream society, leading to per- manent segregation from other caste Hindus. Gandhi stressed that a separate electorate was not a solution for the long-standing oppression faced by the Depressed Classes.  Gandhi was supportive of adequate representation of the Depressed Classes, but he was against reserving seats either through joint or separate electorate. Ambedkar on Separate Electorates Ambedkar argued that the Depressed Classes faced challenges in sustaining itself. They were eco- nomically reliant on higher-caste Hindus for their livelihoods, lacking independent means of sustenance. Their religion, instead of granting them an honourable position, labelled them as untouchables, unfit for regular interaction. Ambedkar noted that although not all avenues are closed due to social preju- dices, there is a deliberate effort within Hindu society to block opportunities for the Depressed Classes to improve their social standing and quality of life. Given these challenges, Ambedkar believed that political representation was crucial for the Depressed Classes to protect themselves against organised oppression and discriminatory practices. He thought that political representation would give them an important tool to improve their situation in the face of social and economic challenges. 218 Separate Electorate and Depressed Classes The Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909 provided a separate electorate for the Muslims. The Govern- MIH-II – Post-1857 ment of India Act 1919 extended the separate electorate for Sikhs, Anglo-Indians, Indian Chris- tians and Europeans but did not include Depressed Classes. The Simon Commission recommended the reservation of seats for the Depressed Classes but did not support the demand for a separate electorate. https:/ /upscpdf.com/ During the Second Round Table Conference, Indian leaders could not agree on the representation of the Depressed Classes. In 1932, the Indian Franchise Committee was established under Lord Lothian to determine matters related to voting rights. One of the directives given to the Committee was to replace the nomination of Depressed Classes to legislatures with an election to determine whether a joint or separate elec- torate would be more effective for them. The Lothian committee did not recommend any electorate but pointed out the need to provide the Dalits with some means of representing their interest. However, failing to find an acceptable solution to the issue of Dalit representation, the British Government, on its own, announced the Com- munal Award in August 1932, making provision for a separate electorate for the Dalits. Poona Pact Gandhi reacted strongly to the proposal of granting the right of a separate electorate to the de- pressed classes. He regarded Depressed Classes as an integral part of Hindu society. On 18 August 1932, Gandhiji wrote a letter to Ramsay Macdonald declaring his intentions to fast unto death against the Communal Award. Ambedkar’s response to Gandhi’s decision to fast was different, and he said, ‘I do not care for these political stunts. This threat of Mr Gandhi to starve himself to death is not a moral fight but only a political move. I can understand a person trying to negotiate with his political opponents on equal terms, but those methods will never persuade me. If Mr Gandhi wants to fight with his life for the inter- ests of the Hindu community, the depressed Classes will also be forced to fight with their lives to safeguard their interests.’ To convince Ambedkar to accept his view, Gandhi resorted to a fast unto death on September 20, 1932, while he was in Yerwada Jail. As pressure mounted on Ambedkar, he agreed to consider Gandhi’s proposal, provided that the scheme guaranteed better than the Communal Award. On September 24, Hindu and depressed class leaders signed the Poona Pact in the presence of Gandhiji. Gandhi’s trusted emissary, C Rajagopalachari, exchanged his fountain pen with Ambedkar at the end of the talks. Gandhiji broke fast on September 26 in the presence of Rabindranath Tagore.  To Ambedkar, the rights of the Depressed Classes were most important compared to political in- 219 dependence, whereas Gandhi was fighting a two-pronged battle, one for India’s independence, the MIH-II – Post-1857 other for maintaining the cohesiveness of Hindu society. Main terms of the Poona Pact It accepted the principle of a joint electorate. 148 seats were reserved for the Depressed Classes in the provincial legislatures as against 71 seats given by the Communal Award. https:/ /upscpdf.com/ 18 per cent of the total seats meant for the general electorate would be kept for the Depressed Classes in the central legislature. It was also decided that the continuance of the reservation would be decided in future by mutual agreement. [UPSC CSE 2012] Why did Mahatma Gandhi undertake the fast unto death in 1932. a) Round table conference failed to satisfy Indian political aspirations b) Congress and the Muslim League had differences of opinion c) Ramsay MacDonald announced the Communal Award d) None of the statements (a), (b) and (c) given above is correct in this context Answer: Option C [UPSC CSE 2005] Consider the following statements: 1. In the first Round Table Conference, Dr Ambedkar demanded separate electorates for the de- pressed classes. 2. In the Poona Pact, special provisions for the representation of the depressed class people in the local bodies and civil services were made 3. The Indian National Congress did not take part in the Third Round Table Conference, Which of the statements given above are correct? Choose the correct answer from the following options: a) 1 and 2 b) 2 and 3 c) 1 and 3 d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: Option C Depressed Classes Caste, an integral aspect of the Hindu social system, contributed to establishing a social hierarchy. In the name of maintaining ritual purity, a significant portion of Hindu society was labelled as untouch- 220 ables. The term "Depressed Classes" refers to these so-called untouchables occupying the lowest rung of the Hindu caste hierarchy. They were considered outside the four castes. MIH-II – Post-1857 Exclusion of the Depressed Classes Despite being part of the Hindu social system, Depressed Classes were barred from Hindu temples and faced religious and social disadvantages. Economically, individuals from the Depressed Classes were often landless labourers or engaged in menial occupations like scavenging and leather work. https:/ /upscpdf.com/ This discrimination and economic marginalisation created significant social and economic disparities within the broader Hindu community. Role of Socio-religious Reforms The socio-religious reform movements in India, like Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, Arya Samaj, etc., tried to draw our attention to social disabilities and appealed to eradicating social prejudices. Depressed Classes' Struggle for Rights There was also growing awareness among a section within the Depressed Classes to assert removing social disabilities and ask for their rightful place in society. Jotirao Phule, a social reformer of the 19th century belonging to the so-called Shudra caste, in his book Gulamgiri, exposed the inhuman laws under the guise of religion to keep the lower castes under the subjugation of the upper castes. Dr B. R. Ambedkar, influenced by Phule’s ideas, tried to explain the hollowness of the caste system and questioned the religious basis of the origin of untouchables. Role of the British Government In the late 19th century, the British government took steps to enumerate the Depressed Classes separately in the Indian census. Additionally, efforts were made to implement special provisions for their educational and material development in different provinces. The Depressed Classes began advocating for representation in legislative bodies, admission of their children to all schools, reservation in government jobs, and expressed support for the British to safe- guard their rights. The Government of India Act of 1919 provided for the nomination of Depressed Classes to provincial legislative councils. Gandhi’s Efforts to Remove Untouchability Until Gandhi emerged as the leader of the INC, the nationalist leaders refrained from discussing issues pertaining to removing social disabilities. Gandhi's South African Experience The time Gandhi spent in South Africa deeply influenced his perspective. 221 Gandhi faced discrimination in South Africa. Upon his return to India, this first-hand experience of MIH-II – Post-1857 prejudice allowed him to better understand the hardships faced by the depressed classes, particu- larly due to untouchability. Hence, from the beginning of his activism in India, Gandhi focused on improving the social status of depressed people and eliminating untouchability. https:/ /upscpdf.com/ In Gandhi’s opinion, ‘Untouchability has made Indians untouchables in the whole world, and those who wanted to see the condition of untouchable Indians should go to South Africa and realise what untouchability meant.’ From the beginning, Gandhi brought the issue of untouchability to the centre of Indian politics. The Satyagraha Ashram, founded by Gandhi in 1915, resolved to abolish untouchability. Instead of using terms like ‘untouchables’, ‘panchamas’, ‘antyaja’, etc., Gandhi coined the term ‘Harijan’, meaning ‘Children of God’, because, in his opinion, other expressions were derogatory. Gandhi actively organised satyagraha campaigns to ensure their entry into temples and access to public facilities like wells, tanks, roads, and schools. Swaraj and Untouchability Gandhi declared that Swaraj would not come for a hundred years if untouchability was not elimi- nated. He believed that Indians had to address untouchability to deserve freedom. For Gandhi, Swaraj meant freedom for every individual in India. His goal was not just to free India from British rule but to liberate the country from any form of oppression. Religion and Untouchability Gandhi strongly rejected the notion that untouchability had religious approval and was sanctioned by Hindu scriptures. Gandhi stressed that untouchability must be eradicated to preserve the honour of Hinduism. This could only be achieved by treating untouchables equally with caste Hindus in all aspects of life. Gandhi's Approach to Eliminate Untouchability According to Gandhi, eliminating untouchability requires a change in daily behaviour, not just sym- bolic gestures. He suggested bringing Harijans to temples, but if they face discrimination, one should boycott such places. Gandhi believed that avoiding places promoting untouchability, even temples, was necessary to show a true commitment to the cause and demonstrate that such practices are against the principles of right- eousness. Gandhi’s Nationwide Tour 222 While Gandhi was in prison, to combat untouchability:  Harijan Sevak Sangh (All-India Anti-Untouchability League) was established on 30 September MIH-II – Post-1857 1932.  Harijan, the weekly paper, was started on 11 February 1933. After his release in May 1933, Gandhi devoted himself almost wholly to the campaign against untouch- ability. https:/ /upscpdf.com/ On November 7, 1933, Gandhi embarked on a country-wide tour covering 12,500 miles and lasted nine months. During his visits to Delhi, Gandhiji stayed at Harijan Colony, Kingsway Camp many times. He also laid a foundation stone of the temple in Harijan Colony. This was done solely for one purpose: to remove untouchability completely from society. Gandhi on Chaturvarna System Gandhi was critical of untouchability and caste-related restrictions on marriage and dining. How- ever, he supported the concept of Chaturvarna. Gandhi believed that the division was based on the different functions performed, not on superi- ority or inferiority. He emphasised equal status among them. He argued that social restrictions im- posed in the name of caste distorted the true essence of Varnashrama. 9.5. Gandhi and Ambedkar Mahatma Gandhi B. R. Ambedkar Mahatma Gandhi was a follower of Hinduism. In 1956, Ambedkar gave up Hinduism and adopted Buddhism. Gandhi had faith in the Vedas and Hindu scrip- Ambedkar opposed the Hindu scriptures as he tures, such as the Gita. believed that they provided sanction to the caste system. He publicly burnt the Manusmriti. Gandhi supported the concept of Chaturvarna. Ambedkar opposed the varna system as it created However, he believed that the division in the Cha- inequality. turvarna was based on the different functions per- formed, not on superiority or inferiority. Gandhiji did not favour the abolition of caste. Ambedkar favoured the abolition of caste for the radical reconfiguration of the Hindu religion. Gandhi opposed the separate electorate. He be- Ambedkar argued for a separate electorate as a lieved that separate electorates would create divi- means of securing political representation for the sion. Depressed Classes. According to Gandhi, eliminating untouchability Ambedkar favoured the rights-based approach requires a change in daily behaviour. He tried to for the upliftment of Depressed Classes. 223 remove untouchability by sensitising the upper MIH-II – Post-1857 castes of Hindus and through social works. 9.6. Unsung Heroes Rani Gaidinliu https:/ /upscpdf.com/ Rani Gaidinliu was born on January 26, 1915, in Manipur. She was a spiritual and political leader of the Rongmei tribe. In 1927, at the age of 13, Gaidinliu, along with her cousin Haipou Jadonang, joined the Heraka move- ment. This movement aimed to revive the Naga tribal religion and establish self-rule of the Nagas (Naga Raj), ending British rule. After the execution of Jadonang (Cousin of Rani) in 1931, Rani Gaidinliu took up the leadership of the Heraka movement, which slowly turned political from religious. Gaidinliu was arrested in 1932 and was sentenced to life imprisonment by the British rulers. She was released only in 1947 by the Government of Free India. Jawaharlal Nehru described Gaidinliu as the “daughter of the hills”, and he gave her the title of ‘Rani’ for her courage. Heraka movement Heraka movement was based on the ancestral Naga religion and envisioned an independent Naga kingdom (or Naga-Raja). It was initiated by Haipou Jadonang, a cousin of Gaidinliu, during the 1920s. It began as a protest against British interference in the religious and cultural practices of the local inhabitants and their strategies of conversion. 9.7. British Prime Ministers Tenure British PM Party November 1924 to June 1929 Stanley Baldwin Conservative Party (5 June 1929 – 7 June 1935) Ramsay MacDonald 1. Labour Party 1. From 1929 to 1931 2. National Government dominated by 2. From 1931 to 1935 the Conservative Party 7 June 1935 – 28 May 1937 Stanley Baldwin Conservative Party 28 May 1937 – 10 May 1940 Arthur Chamberlain Conservative Party 10 May 1940 – 26 July 1945 Winston Churchill National Government (During WW II) 26 July 1945 – 26 October 1951 Clement Attlee Labour Party 224 9.8. Viceroy and Governor-General of India MIH-II – Post-1857 Viceroy of India Tenure British PM Lord Irwin 3 April 1926 – 18 April 1931 Stanley Baldwin (1926-29) Ramsay MacDonald (1929-31) Lord Willingdon 18 April 1931 – 18 April 1936 Ramsay MacDonald (1931-35) Stanley Baldwin (1935-36) https:/ /upscpdf.com/ Lord Linlithgow 18 April 1936 – 1 October 1943 Stanley Baldwin (1936-37) Neville Chamberlain (1937-40) Winston Churchill (1940-43) Lord Wavell 1 October 1943 – 21 February Winston Churchill (1943–45) 1947 Clement Attlee (1945–47) Lord Mountbatten 21 February 1947 – 15 August Clement Attlee 1947 Post-Independence Governor-General of India Tenure Indian PM Lord Mountbatten 15 August 1947 – 21 June 1948 Jawaharlal Nehru C. Rajagopalachari 21 June 1948 – 26 January 1950 Jawaharlal Nehru 9.9. Summary Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-34) On 31st January, Gandhi sent a letter to Viceroy Irwin stating eleven demands. Irwin was unwilling to negotiate. So, Mahatma Gandhi started the salt march on March 12, 1930. On March 12, 1930, Gandhi started a march with 78 followers from Sabarmati Ashram to the coastal town of Dandi. On the morning of 6th April, Mahatma Gandhi and his followers broke the Salt Act by producing salt from seawater. With this, the civil disobedience movement launched, and parallel salt marches were conducted in other parts of the country. Salt march Leader Malabar K. Kelappan Tanjore coast C. Rajagopalachari Orissa Gopabandhu Choudhury North-West Frontier Province Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan Dharasana Abbas Tyabji (May 5) Sarojini Naidu, Imam Sahib and Manilal (May 21) Gandhi was arrested on 5th May. After Gandhi’s arrest, the CWC sanctioned: 225  Non-payment of land revenue in Ryotwari areas.  No-chaukidar-tax campaign in the Zamindari areas. MIH-II – Post-1857  Violation of forest laws in the Central Provinces. Response of Different Sections Women: Women participated in large numbers. Muslims: Compared to the non-cooperation movement, Muslim participation remained low https:/ /upscpdf.com/ Peasants: There was a massive peasant mobilisation. Tribals: The tribal people participated in the defiance of forest laws. End of the movement The government used heavy repression to suppress the movement. Over 90,000 Satyagrahis were imprisoned, Congress was declared illegal, and the nationalist press was gagged through strict cen- sorship of news. Gandhi officially suspended the movement in May 1933 and withdrew it in April 1934. Gandhi-Irwin Pact (Delhi Pact) In 1930, the British Government summoned the first Round Table Conference in London. The INC boycotted the Conference, and its proceedings were unsuccessful. Hence, the government made at- tempts to negotiate an agreement with Congress so that it would attend the Round Table Conference. On 5 March 1931, the Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed, according to which the Congress suspended the Civil Disobedience Movement and agreed to participate in the Second Round Table Conference. Karachi Session of Congress (1931) In March 1931, a Congress session was held in Karachi to endorse the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. Sardar Patel was elected as the President of the Congress at the Session. The session passed the resolution on Fundamental Rights and the National Economic Programme, also known as the Karachi Resolution, drafted by Jawaharlal Nehru and revised by Gandhi. Round Table Conferences (RTCs) The three Round Table Conferences of Indian leaders and British government spokesmen were held in London from 1930 to 1932. The INC participated only in the second conference. Communal Award and Poona Pact On 16 August 1932, British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald introduced the Communal Award and extended a separate electorate to the Depressed Classes. Gandhi stressed that a separate electorate was not a solution for the long-standing oppression faced by the Depressed Classes. On 18 August 1932, he wrote a letter to Ramsay Macdonald declaring his intentions to fast unto death against the Communal Award. 226 To convince Ambedkar to accept his view, Gandhi resorted to a fast unto death on September 20, MIH-II – Post-1857 1932, while he was in Yerwada Jail. Finally, Ambedkar agreed, and on September 24, Hindu and de- pressed class leaders signed the Poona Pact in the presence of Gandhiji. Gandhiji broke fast on Sep- tember 26.