Indian Physical Geography PDF Notes 2024

https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ INDIAN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY PMF IAS This will not be the cover of the Hardcopy. This cover is f...

https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ INDIAN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY PMF IAS This will not be the cover of the Hardcopy. This cover is for representational purposes only https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ Contents 1. India as a Geographical Unit............................................................................................................................ 1 Location................................................................................................................................................. 1 Indian Subcontinent................................................................................................................................................................................. 3 India, Tropical or Temperate Country?............................................................................................................................................. 4 Size......................................................................................................................................................... 4 Comparing India with The Top 10 Largest Countries by Area................................................................................................. 4 Indian Standard Time.............................................................................................................................................................................. 5 India's Frontiers.................................................................................................................................... 5 The Length of India’s Land Borders with Neighbouring Countries......................................................................................... 7 Border with China..................................................................................................................................................................................... 7 The Indo-Pakistan Boundary..............................................................................................................................................................12 Other Borders...........................................................................................................................................................................................13 Major Geological (Physical) Divisions of India............................................................................... 13 2. Rock System Based on the Geological History of India............................................................................... 15 Archaean Rock System (Pre-Cambrian Rocks)............................................................................... 15 Archaean Gneisses and Schists (4 billion years old)...................................................................................................................16 Dharwar System (4 to 1 billion years old)......................................................................................................................................16 Purana Rock System (1400 to 600 million years old)................................................................................................................17 Dravidian Rock System (Palaeozoic)............................................................................................... 17 Carboniferous Rocks (350 million years)........................................................................................................................................18 Aryan Rock System............................................................................................................................ 18 Gondwana System..................................................................................................................................................................................18 Triassic System.........................................................................................................................................................................................19 Jurassic System........................................................................................................................................................................................19 Cretaceous System..................................................................................................................................................................................19 Deccan Traps............................................................................................................................................................................................19 Tertiary System........................................................................................................................................................................................20 Pleistocene System.................................................................................................................................................................................21 3. The Himalayan Ranges – Part I...................................................................................................................... 23 The Formation of The Himalayas and The Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain.......................... 24 The Formation of The Himalayas......................................................................................................................................................26 i The Formation of Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain...............................................................................................................27 PMF IAS IPG Classification of The Himalayan Ranges........................................................................................ 27 The Three Parallel Rangs.....................................................................................................................................................................29 https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ The Trans Himalayas........................................................................................................................ 30 Ranges in The Trans Himalayas........................................................................................................................................................30 The Greater Himalaya....................................................................................................................... 31 The Lesser Himalayas or The Middle Himalayas or The Himachal.............................................. 32 Important Ranges in the Lesser Himalayas...................................................................................................................................34 Shiwalik Range (Shiwaliks).............................................................................................................. 34 The Shiwaliks are known by different names...............................................................................................................................35 Duns.............................................................................................................................................................................................................35 Purvanchal or Eastern Hills.............................................................................................................. 36 Regional Hills of The Purvanchal......................................................................................................................................................37 Regional Division of Himalayas...................................................................................................... 38 Western Himalayas................................................................................................................................................................................38 Central Himalayas..................................................................................................................................................................................40 Eastern Himalayas..................................................................................................................................................................................40 Eastern Section vs Western Section of The Himalayas..............................................................................................................42 Summary............................................................................................................................................ 43 4. The Himalayan Ranges – Part II..................................................................................................................... 44 Important Valleys in the Himalayas................................................................................................ 44 Kashmir valley..........................................................................................................................................................................................44 Kangra Valley (Himachal Pradesh)..................................................................................................................................................45 Kulu Valley (Himachal Pradesh)........................................................................................................................................................45 Snow in the Himalayas – Snowline.................................................................................................. 46 Major Glaciers in the Himalayas...................................................................................................... 46 Glaciers of the Karakoram Range.....................................................................................................................................................46 Glaciers of the Pir Panjal Range........................................................................................................................................................46 Glaciers of Ladakh..................................................................................................................................................................................47 Glaciers of Jammu and Kashmir.......................................................................................................................................................49 Glaciers of Himachal Pradesh............................................................................................................................................................49 Glaciers of Uttarakhand.......................................................................................................................................................................50 Glaciers of Sikkim....................................................................................................................................................................................53 Major Mountain Passes in The Himalayas...................................................................................... 55 Ladakh and Jammu and Kashmir.....................................................................................................................................................57 Himachal Pradesh..................................................................................................................................................................................59 ii Uttarakhand..............................................................................................................................................................................................60 PMF IAS IPG Eastern Himalayas..................................................................................................................................................................................60 The Significance of The Himalayas................................................................................................. 61 Influence on Indian Climate................................................................................................................................................................61 https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ Source of Rivers........................................................................................................................................................................................62 Forest Wealth...........................................................................................................................................................................................62 Agriculture.................................................................................................................................................................................................62 Tourism.......................................................................................................................................................................................................63 Mineral Resources in the Himalayas................................................................................................................................................63 5. Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain................................................................................................................ 64 Features of Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain.............................................................................. 64 Physiographic Division of Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain..................................................... 64 The Bhabar................................................................................................................................................................................................65 The Tarai (Terai)......................................................................................................................................................................................65 Alluvial Plains...........................................................................................................................................................................................65 The Delta Plains......................................................................................................................................................................................66 Regional Division of the Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain....................................................... 66 Sindh Plain (Pakistan)...........................................................................................................................................................................67 Rajasthan Plain........................................................................................................................................................................................67 Punjab Plain..............................................................................................................................................................................................68 Ganga Plain..............................................................................................................................................................................................69 Brahmaputra Plain.................................................................................................................................................................................69 Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta: Sundarbans.......................................................................................................................................70 The Significance of the Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain.......................................................... 70 6. Peninsular Plateau........................................................................................................................................... 73 Divisions of the Peninsular Plateau................................................................................................ 74 Marwar Plateau or Mewar Plateau..................................................................................................................................................74 Central Highlands...................................................................................................................................................................................74 Bundelkhand Upland.............................................................................................................................................................................74 Malwa Plateau.........................................................................................................................................................................................74 Baghelkhand.............................................................................................................................................................................................75 Chotanagpur Plateau............................................................................................................................................................................75 Deccan Plateau........................................................................................................................................................................................75 Chhattisgarh Plain..................................................................................................................................................................................77 Meghalaya Plateau or Shillong Plateau.........................................................................................................................................77 Hills of the Peninsular Plateau........................................................................................................ 78 Aravalli Range..........................................................................................................................................................................................79 Vindhyan Range......................................................................................................................................................................................79 iii Satpura Range..........................................................................................................................................................................................80 Western Ghats (or The Sahyadris)....................................................................................................................................................80 PMF IAS IPG Eastern Ghats...........................................................................................................................................................................................82 The Significance of the Peninsular Plateau.................................................................................... 85 https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ 7. Coastline, Coastal Plains, and Indian Islands.............................................................................................. 86 Coastline of India.............................................................................................................................. 86 Coastlines of Emergence and Submergence.................................................................................................................................87 Coastal Plains of India...................................................................................................................... 87 Western Coastal Plains of India.........................................................................................................................................................88 Eastern Coastal Plains of India..........................................................................................................................................................89 The Significance of the Coastal Plains............................................................................................................................................90 Indian Islands..................................................................................................................................... 91 Andaman and Nicobar Islands (A&N Islands).............................................................................................................................92 Lakshadweep Islands.............................................................................................................................................................................94 Other Islands.............................................................................................................................................................................................96 8. Drainage Systems of India.............................................................................................................................. 98 Classification of the Indian Drainage System................................................................................ 98 Based on Discharge of Water (Orientations to the Sea)...........................................................................................................98 Based on the Size of the Watershed.................................................................................................................................................99 Based on Drainage.............................................................................................................................................................................. 100 Based on Origin.................................................................................................................................................................................... 100 Indus River System.......................................................................................................................... 102 Indus River.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 103 Chenab (or Chandra Bhaga)............................................................................................................................................................ 103 Jhelum...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 104 Ravi........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 104 Beas........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 104 Sutlej......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 104 Panjnad River........................................................................................................................................................................................ 105 Major Hydro-electric Projects (HEP) in the Indus Basin......................................................................................................... 106 Ganga River System........................................................................................................................ 106 Ganga River........................................................................................................................................................................................... 108 Yamuna................................................................................................................................................................................................... 108 Gandak (Narayani).............................................................................................................................................................................. 110 Burhi Gandak River............................................................................................................................................................................. 110 Ghaghara................................................................................................................................................................................................ 110 Kosi............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 110 Son (Sone) River.................................................................................................................................................................................... 111 Damodar................................................................................................................................................................................................. 112 iv Important Hydro-electric Projects (HEP) in the Ganga Basin.............................................................................................. 112 PMF IAS IPG Brahmaputra River System............................................................................................................. 112 Major Tributaries of Brahmaputra................................................................................................................................................. 113 Barak River System.............................................................................................................................................................................. 116 https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ Important Hydro-electric Projects (HEP) on the Brahmaputra Basin................................................................................ 116 East Flowing Peninsular Rivers...................................................................................................... 116 Godavari River System....................................................................................................................................................................... 116 Krishna River System.......................................................................................................................................................................... 119 Cauvery River System......................................................................................................................................................................... 121 Mahanadi River System..................................................................................................................................................................... 123 Subernarekha River System.............................................................................................................................................................. 124 Brahmani and Baitarni River System............................................................................................................................................ 125 Pennar (Uttara Pinakini) River System......................................................................................................................................... 126 Other East-Flowing Peninsular Rivers.......................................................................................................................................... 126 West Flowing Peninsular Rivers..................................................................................................... 131 Narmada River System...................................................................................................................................................................... 131 Tapti (or Tapi) River System............................................................................................................................................................. 134 Sabarmati River System..................................................................................................................................................................... 135 Mahi River System............................................................................................................................................................................... 135 Periyar River System........................................................................................................................................................................... 136 Bharathapuzha (Ponnani) River System...................................................................................................................................... 136 Pamba River........................................................................................................................................................................................... 137 Luni River System................................................................................................................................................................................. 137 Major Facts About Indian Rivers.................................................................................................... 138 Top 10 Longest Rivers of India........................................................................................................................................................ 138 Rivers and Major Cities on Their Banks....................................................................................................................................... 138 Major Dams............................................................................................................................................................................................ 139 Relevant PYQs....................................................................................................................................................................................... 140 River Water Disputes....................................................................................................................... 142 India-Pakistan: Indus Waters Treaty............................................................................................................................................. 142 Karnataka-Tamil Nadu: Cauvery Water Dispute..................................................................................................................... 145 Karnataka-Goa: Kalasa-Banduri Nala Project.......................................................................................................................... 147 Interlinking of Rivers (ILR) or Inter Basin Water Transfer (IBWT)............................................. 148 Significance of Interlinking of Rivers............................................................................................................................................. 148 Challenges with Interlinking of Rivers.......................................................................................................................................... 148 National Perspective Plan (NPP) for Water Resources Development............................................................................... 149 National Interlinking of Rivers Authority (NIRA)...................................................................................................................... 150 Ken-Betwa River Interlinking Project............................................................................................................................................ 150 Godavari-Krishna Link Project........................................................................................................................................................ 150 Ganga-Amravati Interlinking Project........................................................................................................................................... 151 v 9. Indian Monsoons............................................................................................................................................153 PMF IAS IPG Influencing Factors.......................................................................................................................... 153 Factors responsible for south-west monsoon formation........................................................................................................ 153 Factors that influence the onset of south-west monsoons.................................................................................................... 154 https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ Factors that influence the intensity of south-west monsoons.............................................................................................. 154 Factors responsible for north-east monsoon formation......................................................................................................... 154 Mechanism of Indian Monsoons – Classical Theory..................................................................... 155 Indian Monsoons – Classical Theory: Sir Edmund Halley’s Theory.................................................................................... 156 Mechanism of Indian Monsoons – Based on Modern Theories.................................................... 157 Indian Monsoon Mechanism – Seasonal Rhythm.................................................................................................................... 157 Indian Monsoon Mechanism – Air Mass Theory....................................................................................................................... 166 Indian Monsoon Mechanism – Modern Theory: Jet Stream Theory................................................................................... 168 Indian Monsoon Mechanism – Role of Sub-Tropical Jet Stream (STJ).............................................................................. 169 Indian Monsoons – Influencing Factors......................................................................................... 173 Indian Monsoons – Role of Tropical Easterly Jet (TEJ) (African Easterly Jet)................................................................... 173 Indian Monsoons – Role of Tibet.................................................................................................................................................... 173 Indian Monsoons – Role of Somali Jet.......................................................................................................................................... 174 Indian Monsoons – Role of Indian Ocean Dipole..................................................................................................................... 175 Characteristics of the Indian Monsoon.......................................................................................... 176 Seasonal Reversal................................................................................................................................................................................. 176 Variability............................................................................................................................................................................................... 177 Spatial Distribution............................................................................................................................................................................. 177 Monsoon Break..................................................................................................................................................................................... 177 Hard to Predict...................................................................................................................................................................................... 178 Impact on Agriculture......................................................................................................................................................................... 180 10. Indian Climate................................................................................................................................................183 Features of Indian Climate............................................................................................................. 183 Rainfall..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 183 Temperature.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 184 Factors Influencing Indian Climate................................................................................................ 185 Latitudinal location............................................................................................................................................................................. 185 Distance from the Sea........................................................................................................................................................................ 185 Himalayas............................................................................................................................................................................................... 186 Physiography......................................................................................................................................................................................... 187 Monsoon Winds.................................................................................................................................................................................... 188 Upper-Air Circulation......................................................................................................................................................................... 188 Western Disturbances......................................................................................................................................................................... 189 Tropical Cyclones................................................................................................................................................................................. 190 El-Nino, La Nina and ENSO............................................................................................................................................................. 190 vi Indian Climate – Seasons................................................................................................................ 192 PMF IAS IPG Winter Season: November to March............................................................................................................................................. 192 Summer Season in India (March to June)................................................................................................................................... 195 Rainy Season – South-West Monsoon Season........................................................................................................................... 199 https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ South-West Monsoon – Arabian Sea branch and Bay of Bengal branch........................................................................ 204 North-East Monsoon Season – Retreating Monsoon Season............................................................................................... 205 Annual Rainfall (South-West Monsoons + Retreating Monsoons)..................................................................................... 206 Climatic Regions of India................................................................................................................ 208 Stamp's Classification of Climatic Regions of India................................................................................................................ 208 Koppen’s Classification of Climatic Regions of India.............................................................................................................. 210 11. Natural Vegetation of India.........................................................................................................................212 Classification of Natural Vegetation of India.............................................................................. 212 Moist Tropical Forests......................................................................................................................................................................... 214 B. Dry Tropical Forests........................................................................................................................................................................ 220 C. Montane Sub-Tropical Forests................................................................................................................................................... 223 D. Montane Temperate Forests....................................................................................................................................................... 224 E. Alpine Forests.................................................................................................................................................................................... 226 Bamboo................................................................................................................................................................................................... 227 12. India State of Forest Report (ISFR)...............................................................................................................232 Forest Survey of India (FSI)............................................................................................................. 232 Objectives of FSI................................................................................................................................................................................... 232 The Major Activities of FSI................................................................................................................................................................. 232 Major Terms/Definitions in ISFR.................................................................................................... 233 Recorded Forest Area (RFA).............................................................................................................................................................. 233 Forest Cover (FC).................................................................................................................................................................................. 234 Tree Cover............................................................................................................................................................................................... 235 Tress Outside Forests (TOF).............................................................................................................................................................. 235 Comparison............................................................................................................................................................................................ 235 Status of India’s Forest Resources in 2021 (ISFR 2021)............................................................... 236 Forest and Tree Cover of India........................................................................................................................................................ 236 Forest Cover........................................................................................................................................................................................... 238 Recorded Forest Areas (RFAs) in States and UTs...................................................................................................................... 243 Mangrove Cover................................................................................................................................................................................... 244 Bamboo Resources of the Country................................................................................................................................................. 245 Carbon Stock in India's Forests....................................................................................................................................................... 245 Growing Stock....................................................................................................................................................................................... 247 Fire Proneness....................................................................................................................................................................................... 247 Criticism of FSI’s approach and ISFR............................................................................................. 248 vii Criticism of the definition of ‘Forest Cover’................................................................................................................................. 248 Positives are exaggerated and negatives are suppressed...................................................................................................... 248 PMF IAS IPG Not enough tree cover but still a forest! Forest on paper!.................................................................................................... 248 Anything green is a forest?............................................................................................................................................................... 248 https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ 13. Indian Soils.....................................................................................................................................................249 Soil Types: Sandy, Clayey and Loamy............................................................................................ 249 Soil Profile (Soil Horizon)............................................................................................................... 249 O Horizon............................................................................................................................................................................................... 251 A Horizon or Surface soil................................................................................................................................................................... 251 B Horizon or Subsoil............................................................................................................................................................................ 251 C Horizon or Parent rock.................................................................................................................................................................. 252 R Horizon or Bedrock.......................................................................................................................................................................... 252 Factors that Influence Soil Formation in Indian Conditions....................................................... 252 Parent Material..................................................................................................................................................................................... 253 Relief......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 254 Climate.................................................................................................................................................................................................... 254 Natural Vegetation.............................................................................................................................................................................. 255 Major Soil Groups of India.............................................................................................................. 255 Alluvial Soils........................................................................................................................................................................................... 255 Black Soils............................................................................................................................................................................................... 257 Red Soils.................................................................................................................................................................................................. 258 Laterite or Lateritic Soils.................................................................................................................................................................... 259 Forest or Mountain Soils.................................................................................................................................................................... 261 Arid or Desert Soils.............................................................................................................................................................................. 261 Saline or Alkaline Soils....................................................................................................................................................................... 262 Peaty or Marshy Soils......................................................................................................................................................................... 263 viii PMF IAS IPG https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ 1. India as a Geographical Unit Location India lies entirely in the northern hemisphere. It is located in the south-central part of the continent of Asia, bordering the Indian Ocean and its two arms — the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. The mainland of India extends from Ladakh in the north to Kanyakumari in the south and Aruna- chal Pradesh in the east to Gujarat in the west. India’s territorial limit extends towards the sea up to 12 nautical miles (~21.9 km) from the coast. The country's southernmost point is the Pygmalion Point, or Indira Point, at 6° 45' N latitude. It was submerged under sea water in 2004 during the Tsunami. 1 The distance between the northernmost part of India in Ladakh and Kanyakumari is 3,214 km, while the distance from the Rann of Kutch to Arunachal Pradesh is 2,933 km. PMF IAS IPG East-West Extent (~30°) 68° 7' East to 97° 39' East longitude North-South Extent of the mainland (Including POK) (~29°) 8° 4' North to 37° 6' North latitude https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ South-North Extent of India (Including POK and the Andaman 6° 45' North to 37° 6' North latitude and Nicobar Islands) (~31°) The latitudinal and longitudinal extent of India is about 30 degrees. In contrast, the distance measured from north to south extremity is 3,214 km, and from east to west is only 2,933 km. This is because the distance between any two longitudes decreases towards the poles, whereas the distance between any two latitudes remains the same everywhere. Distance between two adjacent Latitudes (~111 km) At the Equator 110.5 km (The slight difference is because of the Geoid shape of the earth) At Poles 111.7 km Distance between two adjacent Longitudes At the Equator 111.3 km At Poles Zero [UPSC 2000] Along which one of the following meridians did India experience the first light of the sunrise of the new millennium? a) 82°30' W b) 82°30' E c) 92°30' W d) 92°30' E Explanation Sunrise occurs first in the east. Since India is located in the eastern hemisphere, the first light of the sunrise would be experienced at a location situated at the easternmost longitude. Longitude values increase from west to east. So, higher longitude values represent more east- ward locations within India. Among the given options, 92°30' E is the highest eastern longitude. Answer: d) 92°30' E [UPSC 2015] Which one of the following pairs of States of India indicates the eastern- most and westernmost State? a) Assam and Rajasthan b) Arunachal Pradesh and Rajasthan c) Assam and Gujarat d) Arunachal Pradesh and Gujarat Explanation Arunachal Pradesh is the easternmost state of India, bordering Bhutan, China, and Myanmar. Its easternmost point, Kibithu, is located at 97°25'E longitude. 2 Gujarat is the westernmost state of India, bordering Pakistan and the Arabian Sea. Its western- PMF IAS IPG most point, Sir Creek, is located at 68°7'E longitude. Answer: d) Arunachal Pradesh and Gujarat https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ Indian Subcontinent The Indian subcontinent comprises five countries — Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and India. The Himalayas stand almost like a strong and long wall between the Indian subcontinent and the Central and East Asian countries. The Himalayas are not only a physical barrier but also a climatic, drainage, and cultural divide. This unique geography has contributed to the distinct regional identity of the Indian subcontinent. [UPSC 2021] Why is India considered as a subcontinent? Elaborate your answer. India's large size, distinct geographical features, unique geological history, diverse cultural heritage, and significant political and economic influence contribute to its designation as a subcontinent. Geography India is geographically large, with an area of over 3.2 million square kilometres, making it sig- nificantly larger than most other countries. Its sheer size sets it apart from other nations and con- tributes to its subcontinental status. India is characterised by diverse geographical features, including the towering Himalayan Mountain range in the north, which acts as a natural barrier separating it from the rest of Asia. The presence of the Deccan Plateau in the south, bordered by coastal plains on both sides, further adds to its distinctiveness. Geological History India was once part of the Gondwana supercontinent, which separated and drifted northward millions of years ago. This distinct geological history contributed to the development of unique geological features and biodiversity. Diversity India boasts a rich tapestry of cultures, languages, religions, and traditions. This diversity is reflected in its cuisine, festivals, clothing, architecture, and more. Various ethnic groups coexist within its borders, contributing to the subcontinental identity. History India has a long and complex history, with civilisations dating back thousands of years. It has been home to ancient civilisations such as the Harappan and Vedic civilisations, as well as being a crucible for various empires, including the Maurya, Gupta, Mughal, and British Empires. This rich historical legacy has shaped India's identity as a subcontinent. Unity 3 Despite its cultural and linguistic diversity, India has maintained political unity for much of its PMF IAS IPG history. Since gaining independence from British rule in 1947, India has remained a single nation- state, albeit with federal governance structures to accommodate its diversity. https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ Strategic Location India's geographic location at the crossroads of South Asia, Central Asia, and the Indian Ocean has endowed it with strategic significance throughout history. Its position has made it a hub for trade, commerce, and cultural exchange, further reinforcing its subcontinental status. India, Tropical or Temperate Country? The Tropic of Cancer (23.5° N) passes through eight states of India, namely Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Tripura, and Mizoram. It divides the country into two latitudinal halves, with the temperate part (north of the Tropic of Cancer) being almost twice as large as the tropical part. However, India has always been treated as a tropical country for two different reasons – physical and cultural. Physical Geographical (Climatic) Reasons  It is primarily because of the Himalayas that India is a predominantly tropical country. The Himalayas separate India from the rest of Asia and block the cold temperate air masses.  The tropical monsoons dominate India’s climate.  Although winter night temperatures are low, clear skies and intense insolation raise the day tem- peratures to a tropical level. Cultural and Geographical Reasons  Settlements, diseases, agricultural and primary economic activities are all tropical in nature. Size India, with its area of 3.28 million sq km, accounts for 2.4 per cent of the world’s land surface area and stands as the seventh largest country in the world. Comparing India with The Top 10 Largest Countries by Area Rank Country Capital City Continent Area (km2) 1 Russia Moscow Europe 1,70,98,242 2 Canada Ottawa North America 99,84,670 3 USA Washington DC North America 98,26,675 4 China Beijing Asia 95,96,961 5 Brazil Brasilia South America 85,14,877 6 Australia Canberra Oceania 77,41,220 4 7 India New Delhi Asia 32,87,263 PMF IAS IPG 8 Argentina Buenos Aires South America 27,80,400 9 Kazakhstan Astana Asia 27,24,900 https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ 10 Algeria Algiers Africa 23,81,741 Indian Standard Time Countries around the world select a standard meridian in multiples of 7°30' of longitude. India has chosen 82°30' E as its standard meridian. Hence, the Indian Standard Time is 5 hours and 30 minutes ahead of Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). There is a variation of nearly 30 degrees, which causes a time difference of nearly two hours be- tween the easternmost and the westernmost parts of our country (A difference of 1° longitude will make a difference of 4 minutes in time. ~30 x 4 = ~120 minutes or ~2 hours). India chose to have a single time zone, unlike longitudinally extensive (greater east-west ex- tent) countries such as Canada (6), USA (11), and Russia (11), which have multiple time zones. While the sun rises in the northeastern states about two hours earlier compared to Jaisalmer, the watches in Dibrugarh and Imphal in the east and Jaisalmer, Bhopal, or Chennai in the other parts of India show the same time.  France (12 time zones), the United Kingdom (9), etc., have multiple time zones despite their mainland not being longitudinally extensive. This is because they have multiple overseas ter- ritories, some of which are in regions far away from the mainland. [UPSC 1999] If it is 10.00 am. I.S.T., then what would be the local time at Shillong on 92° E longitude? a) 9.38 a.m. b) 10.38 a.m. c) 10.22 a.m. d) 9.22 a.m. Explanation Shillong is located at 92° E longitude, while the standard meridian for IST is 82.5° E. Each degree of longitude corresponds to approximately 4 minutes of time difference. Therefore, the time difference between Shillong and IST is (92° - 82.5°) * 4 minutes = 38 minutes. Since Shillong is east of the standard meridian for IST, its local time will be ahead of IST by 38 minutes. If it is 10.00 am IST, adding the time difference (38 minutes), we get 10.00 am + 38 minutes = 10.38 am. Therefore, the local time in Shillong when it is 10.00 am IST is 10.38 am. Answer: b) 10.38 a.m. 5 India's Frontiers PMF IAS IPG India has a 15106.7 km land border running through 16 states and 2 UTs. It has a coastline of 7516.6 Km (6100 km of mainland coastline + coastline of 1416.6 Indian islands), touching 9 https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ States and 4 Union Territories (UTs) — Lakshadweep, Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu, Puducherry, and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Barring Telangana, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Delhi and Haryana, all other States in the country have one or more international borders or a coastline and can be regarded 6 as frontline States from the point of view of border management. [UPSC 2008] In India, how many states share the coastline? PMF IAS IPG a) 7 b) 8 https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ c) 9 d) 10 Explanation There are nine states in India that share the coastline:  West Coast: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka and Kerala.  East Coast: Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and West Bengal. Additionally, there are four Union Territories with a coastline:  Lakshadweep Islands in the Arabian Sea  Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu on the Arabian Sea  Puducherry on the Bay of Bengal  Andaman and Nicobar Islands on the Bay of Bengal Answer: c) 9 The Length of India’s Land Borders with Neighbouring Countries India's longest border is with Bangladesh, while the shortest border is with Afghanistan. The length of India’s land borders with neighbouring countries is given in the table below. Neighbours Border Length Frontier States/UTs 1. Bangladesh 4,096.7 km 5 States: WB, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram. 2. China 3,488 km 4 States / 1 UT: Ladakh, HP, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and AP 3. Pakistan 3,323 km 3 States / 2 UTs: Gujarat, Rajasthan, Punjab, J&K, and Ladakh 4. Nepal 1,751 km 5 States: Uttarakhand, UP, Bihar, West Bengal and Sikkim 5. Myanmar 1,643 km 4 States: Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram 6. Bhutan 699 km 4 States: Sikkim, West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh and Assam 7. Afghanistan 106 km 1 UT: Ladakh Total 15,106.7 km 16 states and 2 UTs Border with China Line of Actual Control (LAC) The LAC is the demarcation that separates Indian-controlled territory from Chinese-controlled territory. India considers the LAC to be 3,488 km long, while the Chinese consider it to be only around 2,000 km. Brief History of LAC 7 The Johnson’s Line (proposed in 1865) shows Aksai Chin in erstwhile Jammu and Kashmir (now Ladakh), whereas the McDonald Line (proposed in 1893) places it under China’s control. PMF IAS IPG The McDonald Line placed the Lingzi Tang plains, which are south of the Laktsang Range, in India, and Aksai Chin proper, which is north of the Laktsang Range, in China. https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ India considers the Johnson Line as a correct, rightful national border with China, while on the other hand, China considers the McDonald Line as the correct border with India. Shimla Agreement 1914: The McMahon Line was established and was accepted by Tibet and British Indian authorities. Chinese authorities have been against this from 1914 till today. In 1950, China annexed Tibet and thereafter started claiming the other parts of India as per its Five Fingers of Tibet theory — a policy attributed to Mao Zedong that considers Tibet to be China's right-hand palm, with five fingers — Ladakh, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, and Arunachal Pradesh — on its periphery. In 1957, China occupied Aksai Chin. This episode was followed by intermittent clashes along the border, which finally culminated in the border war of 1962. 8 PMF IAS IPG https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ 9 PMF IAS IPG https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ On October 20, 1962, the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) of China invaded India in Ladakh and across the McMahon line in Arunachal Pradesh. After a month-long War, China unilaterally declared a ceasefire on 19 November 1962. China achieved its objective of acquiring control in the Aksai Chin. In the eastern sector, their troops went back to the north of the McMahon Line. The boundary, which came into existence after the war, came to be known as the Line of Actual Control (LAC). How is the Line of Actual Control (LAC) different from the Line of Control (LoC)? The LoC emerged from the 1948 ceasefire line negotiated by the UN after the Kashmir War. It was designated as the LoC in 1972, following the Shimla Agreement between the two countries. LoC is delineated on a map signed by DGMOs of both armies and has the international sanctity of a legal agreement. The LAC, in contrast, is only a concept. It is not agreed upon by either India or China, neither delineated on a map nor demarcated on the ground. LAC is divided into three sectors: 1. The Eastern sector, which spans Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim, 2. The Middle sector in Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh, and 3. The Western sector in Ladakh. 10 Western Sector PMF IAS IPG The western sector boundary is largely the outcome of the British policy towards the erstwhile Jammu and Kashmir. It separates the Ladakh of India from the Xinjiang province of China. https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ Independent India used the Johnson Line and claimed the entire Aksai Chin as well as the Shaksgam valley (Trans-Karakoram/Shaksgam Tract — gifted to China by Pakistan). China contests Indian control over Daulat Beg Oldi (a tehsil in Leh; believed to host the world’s highest airstrip). China claims the Aksai Chin, the Changmo Valley, Pangong Tso and the Spanggur Tso, as well as a strip of about 5,000 sq km down the entire length of eastern Ladakh. It also claims part of the Huza-Gilgit area in North Kashmir, which was ceded to it by Pakistan in 1963. Pangong Tso lake Pangong Tso is a long, narrow, deep, endorheic (landlocked) saline lake situated at a height of more than 4,225 m in the Ladakh Himalayas near Leh. The 135 km-long lake sprawls over 604 sq km in the shape of a boomerang and is 6 km wide at its broadest point. One-third of the water body, its 45 km stretch, is in Indian control, while the rest of the 90 km is under Chinese control. By itself, the lake does not have major tactical significance. But it lies in the path of the Chushul approach, one of the main approaches that China can use for an offensive into Indian-held terri- tory. Middle Sector The middle sector boundary includes Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh. It is the only area where India and China have exchanged maps on which they broadly agree. Eastern Sector The eastern sector boundary between India and China runs from the eastern limit of Bhutan to a point near Diphu Pass (Talu-Pass) at the tri-junction of India, Tibet and Myanmar.  Diphu Pass is a mountain pass around the disputed tri-point border of India, China, and Myan- mar. It is the Talu pass on the Burmese side, and the Diphu pass on the Indian side. The disputed boundary in the Eastern Sector is over the MacMahon Line. India controls the bound- ary up to the McMahon Line. The region south of the McMahon Line came to be known as the state of Arunachal Pradesh. The Tawang tract claimed by China was taken over by India in 1951. China never accepted the McMahon Line and formally claimed Arunachal Pradesh as its North East Frontier Agency, a part of its Tibet Autonomous Region. Dokalam 11 Doklam (Zhoglam/Donglang) is a narrow plateau lying in the tri-junction of India, China and Bhutan. PMF IAS IPG China believes Doklam to be a disputed territory between Bhutan and China. It, therefore, con- tests the presence of the Indian army in the region as a transgression. https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ The disputed region is very close to India’s Siliguri Corridor (Chicken’s Neck), which connects the seven northeastern states to the Indian mainland. The Indo-Pakistan Boundary The Indo-Pakistan boundary is the result of the partition of the country in 1947 under the Radcliffe Award, of which Sir Cyril Radcliffe was the chairman. Jammu, Kashmir, and Sir Creek are the major disputed regions. Creeks in the Kutch Region 12 PMF IAS IPG Gilgit-Baltistan and Azad Kashmir https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ Gilgit-Baltistan is situated on the northwestern corner of the Kashmir Valley. It is a picturesque, hilly region to the north of Azad Kashmir and east of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Though both Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan are ruled directly from Islamabad, neither is offi- cially listed as the territory of Pakistan. They do not find a mention in Pakistan's Constitution. For India, on the other hand, as per the resolution passed by Parliament in 1994, Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan (GB) are both part of the State of Jammu and Kashmir.  Pakistan has four provinces: Punjab, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (it includes the Federally Administered Tribal Areas), Baluchistan, and Sindh. Azad Kashmir and GB are autonomous territories.  The China–Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) has changed the dynamics of Gilgit-Baltistan.  Pakistan gifted Shaksgam Valley, a portion of Gilgit-Baltistan, to China in 1963. Other Borders The India-Nepal Boundary A major portion of the Indo-Nepalese border runs in the east-west direction, almost along the foot- hill of the Shiwaliks. Five states of India, namely Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Sikkim, touch the Nepalese border with India. The border is a porous one with an unrestricted movement of goods and people. The India-Bangladesh Border India's 4,096 km-long border with Bangladesh is the longest. This boundary was determined under the Radcliffe Award, which divided the erstwhile province of Bengal into two parts. India-Myanmar Boundary This boundary runs roughly along the watershed between the Brahmaputra and Irrawaddy rivers. It passes through thickly forested regions, with Mizo Hills, Manipur and Nagaland on the Indian side and Chin Hills, Naga Hills and Kachin state on the Myanmar side. Recently, the India Government has decided to construct a fence along the entire 1,643 km Indo- Myanmar border. India-Sri Lanka Boundary The Gulf of Mannar and Palk Strait (a narrow and shallow sea) separates Sri Lanka from India. Dhanushkodi (Pamban Island) on the Tamil Nadu coast in India is only 32 km away from Ta- laimanar in the Jaffna peninsula in Sri Lanka. These two points are joined by a group of islets forming Rama Setu (Adam's Bridge). 13  Among our neighbours, Sri Lanka and Maldives are the two island countries in the Indian Ocean. PMF IAS IPG Major Geological (Physical) Divisions of India India can be divided into the following physiographic divisions: https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ 1. The Himalayas (young fold mountains), 2. The Indo-Gangetic Plain (monotonous featureless topography); the Thar Desert is a part of it, 3. The Peninsular Plateau (one of the most stable landmasses; one of the oldest plateaus of the world), 4. The Coastal Plains (sedimentation due to fluvial action). 5. The Indian Islands (Coral Islands  coral reef built up on atolls. E.g. Lakshadweep Islands; Tectonic  Andaman and Nicobar Islands — formed due to the interaction between the Indian Plate and Eurasian plate). Type of Topography Extent in % Plains 43 Mountainous (more than 2135 m above sea level) 10.7 Mountains 29.3 Hilly area (305 – 2135 m above sea level) 18.6 Plateau (305 – 915 m above sea level) 27.7 Each of these divisions has its unique geological features and resources based on its geological structure. The Peninsular Plateau, for example, is rich in minerals such as iron ore, manganese, and mica. The Himalayas are home to glaciers, snow-capped peaks, and valleys, while the Indo-Gangetic Plain is known for its fertile soil and agricultural productivity. These geological divisions play a crucial role in shaping India's topography, climate, and natural resources, influencing various aspects of its environment and socio-economic development. -------------- End of Chapter -------------- 14 PMF IAS IPG https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ 2. Rock System Based on the Geological History of India Based on the Geological History of India, the rock systems can be classified into four types: 1) The Archaean Rock System 2) The Purana Rock System 3) The Dravidian Rock System 15 4) The Aryan Rock System PMF IAS IPG Archaean Rock System (Pre-Cambrian Rocks) Archaean Rocks formed prior to the Cambrian system. These are the oldest rocks in India. They are mainly found in the Peninsular Shield and are composed of igneous and metamorphic rocks. https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ Archaean Gneisses and Schists (4 billion years old) Gneiss  Mineral composition varies from granite to gabbro. Schists  mostly crystalline, including mica, talc, hornblende, chlorite, etc. Archaean Gneisses and Schists are the oldest rocks (formed in the pre-Cambrian era). They were formed due to the cooling and solidification of molten magma in the upper crust (the earth’s surface was scorching back then). They are known as the ‘Basement Complex’ (they are the oldest and form the base for new layers). They are azoic or unfossiliferous plutonic intrusions (magma solidified below the surface). They are foliated (layered) and are thoroughly crystalline (as they are volcanic in origin). Distribution in India: Central and southern regions of the Indian Peninsula, as well as in portions of Odisha, Meghalaya, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Bundelkhand region and the Chotanagpur Plateau in Jharkhand. 16 Dharwar System (4 to 1 billion years old) They are highly metamorphosed sedimentary systems formed due to the metamorphosis of sed- PMF IAS IPG iments of Archaean gneisses and schists. The formation period ranges from 4 billion years ago to 1 billion years ago. https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ https://upscpdf.com/ The rocks of this system encompass the oldest metamorphosed rocks, arising from both igneous and sedimentary origins. They are found in abundance in the Dharwar district of Karnataka. They are economically the most important rocks because they possess valuable minerals like high-grade iron-ore, manganese, copper, lead, gold, etc. Distribution in India: Dharwar-Bellary-Mysore belt of Karnataka, the central and eastern parts of India in the states of Odisha, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, and Chhattisgarh and parts of Araval- lis. Purana Rock System (1400 to 600 million years old) These rocks include a mix of sedimentary, volcanic, and metamorphic rocks, indicating varied geological processes during this period. Location: Peninsular Shield and parts of the Himalayas. Rock Types: Diverse, including sedimentary rocks (quartzites, sandstones, limestones), volcanic rocks (basalts), and metamorphic rocks (marble, slates). Divisions: the Cuddapah System and the Vindhyan System. Cuddapah System These rocks were formed due to the deposition of unfossiliferous clay, slates, sandstones and lime- stones in synclinal basins (depressions between two folds). Outcrops of these rocks are best observed in the Cuddapah district of Andhra Pradesh. The system has also been developed in parts of Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Odisha. These rocks contain ores of iron, manganese, copper, cobalt, nickel, etc. They contain large deposits of cement-grade limestones. Vindhyan System This system derives its name from the Vindhyan mountains. It comprises of ancient sedimentary rocks (4000 m thick) superimposed on the Archaean base. They are mostly unfossiliferous. The rock deposits of this system can be classified as Lower Vindhyan (1300 – 1100 million years) and Upper Vindhyan (1000 – 600 million years). This system is also found in parts of Karnataka (Bhima Valley), Chhattisgarh and Andhra Pradesh. The Vindhyan system has diamond-bearing regions from which Panna and Golconda diamonds have been mined.