PIC-MIDTERM 2 - Philippine Indigenous Groups PDF

**IVATAN PEOPLE** **Location**: Indigenous inhabitants of **Batanes**, northern Philippines. \- **Culture**: Rich heritage with unique traditions, language, and lifestyle. **Language** : part of the Austronesian language family; distinct phonetic characteristics. \- **Dialects**: 1.** Ivatan (B...

**IVATAN PEOPLE** **Location**: Indigenous inhabitants of **Batanes**, northern Philippines. \- **Culture**: Rich heritage with unique traditions, language, and lifestyle. **Language** : part of the Austronesian language family; distinct phonetic characteristics. \- **Dialects**: 1.** Ivatan (Basco):** Primary dialect; lingua franca. 2. **Itbayaten (Itbayat):** Unique phonological features. 3. **Isamurongen (Sabtang)**: Local vocabulary and expressions. \- Preservation efforts focus on youth amid influences from Filipino and English. **Religion :** predominantly **Roman Catholic**; indigenous beliefs integrated. \- Rituals tied to agriculture and fishing; community celebrations blend religious and cultural elements, especially during the Vakul Festival. **Livelihood :** Economically centered on **agriculture** (root crops, vegetables, rice), fishing, and livestock. Tourism is growing, with homestays and cultural experiences. **Famous Delicacies** \- **Uved**: Seaweed dish, nutrient-rich. \- **Dibang**: Water buffalo meat dish, tender and savory. \- **Luñes**: Glutinous rice cake, sweetened. \- **Vunes**: Sweet fried snack made from ground rice. **Vakul Festival :** Annual celebration honoring Ivatan heritage. Features dances, music, cultural performances, and food fairs. **Traditional Clothing -- Clothing symbolizes identity and connection to the land.** \- Women: Wear the **vakul headdress** and **woven dresses.** Men: Simple attire for farming and fishing. 2. **ILOCANO PEOPLE** **Location**: Predominantly in the **Ilocos** Region, northwestern Luzon, Philippines. \- Culture: Known for resilience, strong work ethic, and contributions to society. **Language : Ilocano**: Primary language; rich phonetic features and vocabulary used for cultural expression. **Religion :** Majority are Roman Catholic; coexistence with traditional beliefs. Celebrated religious festivals highlight spirituality and community ties. **Livelihood :** **Agrarian economy;** main crops include rice, corn, and tobacco. **Fishing, handicrafts, and entrepreneurship** are common; overseas employment contributes to local economy. **Famous Delicacies** \- **Bagnet**: Crispy fried pork, often served with vinegar. \- **Empanada**: Savory pastry with meat and vegetables; distinctive orange dough. \- **Pakbet**: Vegetable dish flavored with shrimp paste, showcasing local abundance. **Festivals** **1. Empanada Festival**: Celebrates the empanada; includes food stalls and performances. 2. **Longganisa Festival:** Honors Ilocos longganisa; features parades and cooking demos. **Clothing : Women**: Wear **patadyong**, a woven skirt with geometric patterns. **Men**: Wear traditional **G-string** or **bahag**. **3. NEGRITO** \- is located in **Southeast Asia and the Andaman Islands**, characterized by short stature, dark skin, and curly hair. The term \"**Negrito**\" means \"**little black people**\" in Spanish but is considered outdated and potentially offensive. \- Believed to be **among the earliest inhabitants of** **Southeast Asia**, arriving around 65,000 years ago. \- Philippines Groups: Includes **Aeta, Ati,** and **Batak.** \- Average height: 1.45 to 1.55 meters (4 feet 9 inches to 5 feet 1 inch). \- Features: Dark brown to black skin, tightly curled hair, broad noses, thick lips, prominent cheekbones. **Religion** : Traditional animism with beliefs in nature spirits. Many have adopted Christian beliefs, blending both with their traditional practices. **Livelihood :** **Hunting**, **Gathering, Fishing, Farming.** **Language** 1. **Agta**: Multiple dialects across Luzon and Palawan. 2. **Aeta**: Variations in Bataan, Zambales, Pampanga, and Nueva Ecija. 3. **Ati**: Spoken in Panay Island. 4. **Batak**: Spoken in Palawan. 5. **Mamanwa**: Spoken in Mindanao. 6. **Buid**: Spoken in Mindoro. 7. **Palawan**: Spoken by the Palawan people. **Clothing :** Simple and practical, made from natural materials. Made from Bark cloth, leaves, vines, and animal skins. Women wear skirts or **wraps**; men wear **loincloths**. **Festivals** 1. **Ati** (Panay Island): **Ati-Atihan Festival:** Celebrated in **January**; honors **Santo Niño** with street dancing and colorful costumes. 2. **Aeta** (Zambales): **Bina Bayani Festival:** A tribute to Aeta ancestors with traditional dances and storytelling. 3. **Mamanwa** (Mindanao): **Katipunan Festival:** Celebrates Mamanwa culture through rituals, music, and dance. 4. **Batak (Palawan)**: **National Day of the Batak**: Celebrates cultural heritage with traditional dances and songs. **Famous Delicacies** 1. **Wild Boar Meat:** Key protein source. 2. **Bamboo Shoots:** Foraged and used in various dishes. 3. **Forest Vegetables and Herbs:** Gathered for food and medicinal uses. 4. **Fish and Seafood**: Caught by coastal communities. 5. **Root Crops**: Includes cassava and sweet potatoes. **4. IFUGAO :** located in mountainous northern Luzon, known for their mastery of **wet-rice agriculture** and the famous **rice terraces,** a UNESCO World Heritage Site. **Livelihood** \- **Rice Farming:** Central to existence but supplemented by crafts due to long growing seasons. \- **Woodworking**: Sustainable forest management (\"**muyong**\"), creating furniture and carvings, including the Bulul figure symbolizing fertility. \- **Weaving**: Creating colorful textiles for ceremonies and daily life, facing challenges from mass-produced goods. \- **Carving**: Artistic expression linked to religion and spirituality, creating significant cultural items for sale. **Religion :** A mix of **animism**, ancestor worship, and **Christianity**. \- **Mumbaki**: Shamans who conduct rituals and communicate with spirits. \- **Bulul**: Carved figure symbolizing rice fertility and ancestors' spirits. **Clothing** \- Women: Colorful **hand-woven skirts** and accessories. \- Men: Loincloths or **G-strings**, adorned with accessories. **Language :** include **Batad, Kiangan, Tuwali, and Tagalog.** **Festivals** 1. **Imbayah Festival**: ***Annual*** celebration with traditional dances and competitions. 2. **Tungoh ad Hungduan** Festival: Marks the ***end*** of the rice planting season. 3. **Gotad ad Kiangan Festival:** Celebrates Ifugao culture with various ***competitions***. 4. **Punnuk Festival**: ***Tugging*** ritual at the end of the harvest season. **Famous Delicacies** 1. **Pinikpikan Chicken Stew:** Chicken stewed with local herbs. 2. **Basi**: Fermented sugarcane juice, a cultural alcoholic beverage. 3.** Binakle Suman:** Rice cake wrapped in banana leaves, popular as a snack or dessert. **5**. **IBANAG :** found in the **Cagayan Valley** region of the northern Philippines, specifically in the provinces of Cagayan, Isabela, and parts of Nueva Vizcaya. Their name comes from **\"I\" (people) + \"Bannag\" (river).** (one of the ***largest*** ethnolinguistic minorities in the Philippines.) **Language :** **Ibanag** is also their language, it belongs to the Northern Philippine subgroup of the **Malayo-Polynesian languages,** although **Filipino** (Tagalog) and **Ilocano** have become more dominant in some areas. **Religion :** majority of Ibanag people are **Roman Catholic** and **Animism** ***(before).*** **Livelihood :** been an **agricultural society**, engaged in **farming** and **fishing**. They cultivate **rice, corn,** and **root crops** like ***sweet potatoes***. **Fishing** is also crucial due to their proximity to the ***Cagayan River.*** **Festivals** \- **Higalaay Festival (Iguig**): Celebrates Ibanag heritage with cultural performances, religious processions, and traditional activities. \- **Pav-vurulun Afi Festival (Tuguegarao City):** Celebrated in **August**, coinciding with the feast day of **St. Hyacinth** **of** **Poland**, the city\'s patron saint. **\"Pav-vurulun\"** means **\"coming together\"** in Ibanag. **Famous Delicacies** \- **Binalay**: Rice cake delicacies prepared during Holy Week. \- **Pinataro**: Native dessert made from sticky rice, coconut milk, and sugar. \- **Igad**: Dish made from pork and liver, simmered in a vinegar-soy sauce mixture. \- **Pawa**: Steamed rice cake filled with sweetened ground peanuts. **Clothing** \- **Kalummakay**: Bandana-style of wearing. \- **ULO/KALLOBUNG**: Cloak or blanket for males. \- **KALIDUMMU**: Large shawls for women. \- **LUMBON**: Smaller shawls for women. **6.** **KAPAMPANGAN :** living in the central plain of Luzon, especially in the province of **Pampanga**. **\"Kapampangan\"** derives from the root word ***\"pampang\" (riverbank)***. **Language : Kapampangan**, or **\"Amanung Sisuan,\"** is the **native** language of the Kapampangan people. It is an ***Austronesian*** language and ***one of the eight major languages in the Philippines.*** **Religion :** majority of Kapampangans are **Roman Catholic**, a result of Spanish colonization. There are also small communities practicing other religions, such as **Protestantism** and **Islam**. Religious festivals, processions, and rituals, such as the ***Good Friday reenactment of the crucifixion in Cutud***, reflect their religious devotion. **Livelihood :** engage in **agriculture**, with ***rice*** and ***sugarcane*** being primary crops. **Fishing** and aquaculture are also common, especially along coastal areas. Many Kapampangans have diversified into commerce, industry, and services, especially with the development of economic zones like the ***Clark Free-Port Zone.*** **Festivals** **- Sinukwan Festival**: Showcases the region\'s rich cultural heritage through street dancing, performances, and parades. \- **Ligaligan Parul (Giant Lantern Festival):** Famous for its giant, intricate lanterns that light up the city during the Christmas season. **- Crucifixion Reenactment in Cutud**: A unique Lenten ritual where devotees reenact the passion of Christ, including real-life crucifixions, drawing both local and international attention. **Famous Delicacies** \- **Sisig**: A popular sizzling dish made from parts of the pig\'s head, liver, and seasoned with spices. \- **Tibok-Tibok:** Traditional Kapampangan milk pudding made from carabao\'s milk. \- **Buro**: Fermented rice and fish or shrimp. \- **Biringhe**: Similar to Spanish paella, made with glutinous rice, coconut milk, chicken, vegetables, and various spices. **Clothing : Women**: Traditional **\"baro\'t saya\"** (blouse and long skirt). Sometimes wore the \"panuelo\" (large kerchief draped over the shoulder). **Men**: Traditional formal wear is the **\"Barong Tagalog,\"** similar to Tagalog traditional clothing. **7. AKLANON :** also known as **Akeanon**, are an ethnolinguistic group primarily found in **Aklan** province on **Panay Island** in the Philippines. They are part of the ***larger Visayan ethnic group.*** **Language :** ***Aklanon (Akeanon),*** also known as ***Bisaya/Binisaya nga Aklanon/Inaklanon*** or simply **Aklan**, is an Austronesian language of the Bisayan subgroup. **Religion :** predominantly **Roman Catholic.** **Livelihood :** Aklan livelihood includes **farming, fishing, and tourism.** It is known for its **piña cloth,** a delicate and translucent fabric made from pineapple fibers. **Clothing** : is renowned for its **piña cloth,** which is used to create elegant and intricate garments, such as the iconic **Aklanon barong Tagalog** and delicate **jusi fabrics.** **Festivals :** The most popular celebration is the **Kalibo Santo Nino Ati-atihan Festival,** held in January, honoring the image of Santo Niño. **Famous Delicacies** \- **Binakol na Manok**: Traditional chicken dish originating from Aklan. \- **Tinuom**: A century-old staple dish in Aklan. \- **Aklan Chorizo**: A type of pork sausage popular in the Philippines. \- **Tamilok**: An unusual delicacy, a type of worm found in mangrove trees. **8. TAGALOG :** are the **largest** ethnolinguistic group in the Philippines, primarily residing in the **southern part of Luzon.** **Language :** **Tagalog** is the native tongue of the Tagalog people and the standardized form, officially named **Filipino**, is the national language of the Philippines. **Religion :** majority of the population identifying as **Christian**, particularly **Roman Catholic.** **Livelihood:** includes **farming, fishing, small businesses,** and **entrepreneurship**. **Clothing -** **Barong Tagalog** (men). **Saya Tagalog** (skirt for women). **Salakot**: Traditional hat. **Festivals :** there are various festivals such as the **Pahiyas** **Festival** in **Lucban, Quezon.** **Famous Delicacies:** Some famous delicacies include **Adobo, Sinigang, Lechon,** and **Halo-Halo.** **9. HILIGAYNON :** also known as **Ilonggo** or **Panayan**, are the second largest subgroup of the Visayan ethnic group. They primarily reside in **Panay, Guimaras,** and **Negros.** **Language:** **Hiligaynon** also known as **Ilonggo** or **Binisaya/Bisaya** **nga Hiniligaynon/Inilonggo**, is an ***Austronesian*** language spoken by about 9.1 million people, predominantly in Western Visayas, Negros Island Region, and Soccsksargen. **Religion :** blend of **pre-Christian** beliefs and **Catholicism**, with mutual influence between the two. **Livelihood : Agriculture** is a major livelihood, with crops like **tobacco, maize, bananas, coconuts,** and **root vegetables**. **Fishing** is an alternative means of income. **Clothing :** Traditional Hiligaynon clothing likely incorporates both indigenous and Spanish influences, including colorful fabrics and embroidery. **Festivals** \- **Dinagyang Festival (4th Sunday of January):** Commemorates the Feast of the Holy Child and the pact between Ati and Malay settlers. \- **Paraw Regatta (3rd Weekend of February):** Celebrates the traditional \"paraw\" sailboats. \- **Fiesta de la Candelaria (February 2):** A smaller fiesta following Dinagyang. **Famous Delicacies** \- **Adobo** and **Pancit**: Filipino staples enjoyed by many ethnic groups. \- **Bibingka** and **Chicken Binakol**: More specific to the Hiligaynon region. **10. WARAY :** or **Waray-Waray** people inhabit **Samar, Biliran, and Leyte** in the Eastern Visayas Region. Known for their **bravery** and are often portrayed as **Filipino warriors.** **Language :** **Waray**, also called **Lineyte-Samarnon**, is a major ***Visayan language*** spoken by the Waray people. The **Biliran** dialect is commonly referred to as **Biliranon**. **Religion :** majority of Waray people are **Roman Catholic.** **Livelihood : Farming**: They cultivate crops like **rice, corn, root vegetables,** and **fruits**. **Fishing**: They engage in traditional fishing methods like line **fishing** and **net fishing**. **Clothing :** likely incorporates both indigenous and Spanish influences, with unique features reflecting their specific cultural heritage. **Festivals** \- **Homonhon Landing (March 16):** Commemorates the **landing of Ferdinand Magellan** in the Philippines in 1521. \- **Karayapan Festival**: A celebration of **thanksgiving to the patroness of the Guiuan** people. **Famous Delicacies** \- **Binagol**: A sweet delicacy made from taro, coconut milk, and brown sugar. \- **Kinilaw**: A type of ceviche made with raw fish or seafood marinated in vinegar and spices. \- **Chicken Binakol:** A soup made with native chicken cooked in coconut water. **11. BOHOLANO -** refers to both the people of **Bohol** island and their language. **Bohol** is located in the ***Central Visayas*** region. **Language :** **Boholano** or **Bol-anon** is considered a variant of Cebuano, with phonetic and morphological differences. **Religion :** majority of Boholanos are **Catholic**. **Livelihood** : include **agriculture**, **fishing**, **cattle raising**, **mineral** production, and **cottage** industries. **Clothing : Men** might wear shirts called \"**barong**\" and long trousers called \"**sarongs**,\" while women might wear dresses called \"**mestiza**\" or \"**terno**,\" with colorful **shawls** called \"**piña\" or \"hablon**.\" **Festivals :** **Sandugo Festival (July 22nd):** Commemorates the blood compact between the native chieftain and Spanish explorer Miguel Lopez de Legazpi. **Famous Delicacies** \- **Kalamay**: A sweet and sticky delicacy made from glutinous rice, coconut milk, and brown sugar. \- **Peanut Kisses:** Peanut-based treats shaped like the iconic Chocolate Hills. **12.CEBUANO** **Language :** **Cebuano**, also known as **Binisaya, Bisayan, Sebuano, Sugbuanon, Sugbuhanon, or Visayan,** is the major language of Visayan islands (**Negros Oriental, Cebu, Bohol**) and parts of Mindanao. **Religion :** majority of Cebuanos are **Roman Catholic**, with many in rural areas synchronizing **Catholicism** with indigenous Bisayan folk religion. Minority are **Muslim** or incorporate Catholic beliefs with aspects of **Buddhism** or **Taoism**. **Livelihood :** **agriculture** and **fishing** being prominent. They cultivate various crops, including **rice**, **corn**, and **vegetables**. **Clothing :** Traditional Cebuano clothing shares similarities with Spanish colonial dress, including garments such as the **\"barong tagalog,\" \"saya,\"** and **\"mestiza.\"** **Festivals** : **Sinulog Festival (Third Sunday of January):** Celebrated in Cebu City, with the signature forward-and-backward steps of the Sinulog dance. **Famous Delicacies** \- **Lechon de Cebu**: A distinct type of roasted pig with a flavorful stuffing. \- **Balamban Liempo**: A flavorful pork dish with a crispy outer layer. **13.** **MANOBO :** are an indigenous group in the Philippines, primarily residing in the mountainous regions of Mindanao. They are considered one of the most diverse indigenous groups in the Philippines, with numerous subgroups and dialects. **Language**: **Manobo** language belongs to the ***Malayo-Polynesian*** branch of the ***Austronesian*** linguistic family. It is one of the 170 languages spoken in the Philippines. **Religion**: practice **animism**, believing in spirits that inhabit the natural world. They revere a **"great spirit"** as the creator figure. **Livelihood**: Their livelihood is based on **agriculture, hunting, fishing, and trapping**. They practice traditional farming methods like **kaingin** and **slash-and-burn.** **Clothing**: Traditionally, they wore garments made from **abaca** or **hemp**, but now use **cotton cloth** obtained through trade. **Festival**: **"Sunggod Ta Kamanga"** festival celebrates Manobo culture, with rituals, dances, and a pig sacrifice. **Famous Delicacies:** includes **Linoob na Manok, Linoob na Paitan, Binayong Balanghoy o Binggala, and Binugsong na manok.** **14**.**MAMANWA :** are a **nomadic** indigenous group in the Philippines, considered **one of the oldest** tribes. They are **distinct from the Negritos,** although they share similar physical characteristics. **Language**: They speak their own dialect, but most can also speak the dialects of the lowlanders. **Religion**: They practice **ethnoreligion**, believing in a collection of spirits governed by the supreme deity, **Magbabaya**. **Clothing**: Traditionally, they wore garments made of forest materials like **bark cloth, abaca, and bamboo**. **Livelihood**: They rely on **hunting, gathering,** and **minimal farming.** **Festivals**: They celebrate various festivals and rituals, including Kahimunan, Kalumunan, and the Baylanon dance. **Famous Delicacies**: Poot-poot ginamos is a tasty delicacy from Surigao. **15. SUBANON** : are an indigenous group in the **Zamboanga peninsula** area of Mindanao. **Language**: They speak **Subanon** languages, including **Western Subanon.** **Religion**: They traditionally venerated a supreme being called **Diwata Migbebaya.** Today, they have adopted **Islam**, **Catholicism**, or **Evangelical Protestantism.** **Livelihood**: They practice agriculture, swidden farming, fishing, hunting, and gathering forest products. **Clothing**: Their traditional clothing is **black or white**, with designs in **red, yellow, and green.** **Festival**: **Pasungko** **Festival** celebrates Subanon culture in **Misamis Occidental.** **Famous Delicacies**: **Curacha** cooked in Alavar's Sauce, Paella, Jamon, and Curacha crab. **16.** **MARANAO** : reside primarily around **Lake Lanao in Mindanao.** **Language :** **Maranao** language belongs to the ***Austronesian*** language family and is spoken in **Lanao del Sur and Lanao del Norte.** **Religion : Islam** has been deeply ingrained in Maranao culture since the 14^th^ century. **Livelihood :** Maranao are skilled in **weaving, brass casting, wood carving, agriculture, and fishing.** **Clothing :** The **malong**, a traditional woven cloth, is a staple garment for **both men and women.** **Festival :** **Sagayan Festival** celebrates Maranao culture with traditional warrior dances called Sagayan. **Famous Delicacies :** includes **Rendang, Palapa, and Piaparan.** **17. BAGOBO :** are **one of the** **largest** indigenous groups in **southern Mindanao,** inhabiting areas surrounding **Mount** **Apo**. **Language :** **Bagobo** language is part of the Manobo language group and is spoken in various dialects. **Religion :** Traditionally, the Bagobo practiced **animism**, but many have converted to **Christianity** while retaining some indigenous beliefs. **Livelihood :** **Agriculture**, particularly **rice, corn, and root crops**, forms the backbone of the Bagobo economy. They are also skilled in **weaving and metalwork.** **Clothing :** is characterized by **vibrant** colors, intricate designs, and cultural significance. Women wear the **pinalang**, a traditional dress with intricate beadwork. Men wear the **bahag** and adorned shirts. **Festival :** **Kahimunan Festival** showcases the culture, traditions, and products of the Bagobo people. **Famous Delicacies: Tiyula Itum**, a traditional Bagobo dish made of beef or goat cooked in black broth. **18. KAMAYO:** reside in the **southeastern part of Mindanao,** primarily in **Surigao del Sur.** **Language :** **Kamayo** language, also called **Kadi, Kinadi, or Mandaya,** is a minor Austronesian language. **Religion :** traditionally hold **animistic** beliefs. **Livelihood :** are skilled in **agriculture** and traditional crafts, including **weaving** and making **handicrafts** from natural materials. **Clothing :** Kamayo clothing reflects their indigenous heritage and connection to nature, featuring **vibrant** colors, **woven** fabrics, and intricate designs. **Festival :** **Kahimunan Festival,** celebrated by the Kamayo people, signifies unity and strengthens their bonds as a community. **Famous Delicacies : Puto Kamayo**, a traditional rice cake, and Sinugba, a grilled dish. **19. HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS AND INEQUALITY FACED BY INDIGENOUS PEOPLES IN THE PHILIPPINES** **Indigenous Peoples (IPs)** in the Philippines constitute 12-15% of the population, residing on over 10 million hectares of land. They are among the most impoverished sectors and face numerous human rights violations. **Legal Protections:** \- **Indigenous Peoples Rights Act of 1997 (IPRA):** Recognizes IPs' rights to ancestral domains, self-determination, cultural integrity, and prior informed consent in development projects. \- **United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP):** Outlines IPs' rights globally, including self-determination, land, and culture. **20. CHALLENGES FACED**: **A**. **Human Rights Violations:** **1.** **Red Tagging**: IPs are falsely accused of supporting communist insurgency, leading to harassment, detention, and extrajudicial killings. **2. Large-Scale Mining**: Displacement from ancestral lands due to mining and development projects, resulting in livelihood and cultural heritage loss. **3. Lumad Killings**: Extrajudicial killings and violence against IPs, particularly the Lumad, including school burnings and forced evacuations. **4. Discrimination**: Discrimination in education, employment, and healthcare access. **B. Inequality:** **- Economic Inequality**: Poverty and limited access to economic opportunities, leading to limited social mobility. **- Political Inequality**: Limited representation in government and exclusion from decision-making processes. **- Social Inequality**: Social inequality in education, healthcare, and basic services, resulting in a lower standard of living and limited opportunities. **C. Access to Justice Barriers:** \- **Lack of Access to Courts:** Physical and financial barriers to accessing courts. \- **Language Barriers**: Communication difficulties with lawyers and judges due to language differences. **- Lack of Awareness**: Unfamiliarity with rights and the legal system. \- I**nefficient Court System**: Slow and inefficient court processes. \- **Limited Resources**: Financial and human resource limitations to access legal services. **21. CHALLENGES FACING ETHNIC GROUPS IN THE PHILIPPINES** **Key Challenges:** **1.Health:** \- **Limited Healthcare Access:** Ethnic groups often lack access to quality healthcare services due to geographic isolation, limited infrastructure, and financial constraints. \- **Cultural Barriers:** Traditional beliefs and practices can sometimes clash with modern medical practices, hindering access to healthcare. \- **Traditional Medicine:** While traditional medicine is important, it can also pose risks if not integrated with modern medical practices. \- **Malnutrition**: Inadequate access to nutritious food contributes to health problems, especially among children. **2.Early Pregnancy:** \- **Lack of Education**: Limited access to education and awareness about family planning leads to early pregnancies, impacting girls' well-being and educational opportunities. \- **Cultural Norms**: Traditional norms and beliefs can sometimes encourage early marriage and childbearing. \- **Lack of Family Planning**: Insufficient access to family planning services and information further contributes to early pregnancies. **3.Education:** \- **Physical Barriers:** Geographic isolation and lack of schools in remote areas hinder access to education. \- **Language Barriers:** Language differences between ethnic groups and mainstream education systems create challenges for learning. \- **Resource Scarcity**: Limited resources, including teachers, materials, and infrastructure, affect the quality of education. \- **Financial Constraints**: Poverty and limited financial resources prevent many ethnic children from attending school. **4. Employment:** \- **Limited Job Opportunities**: Ethnic groups often face limited employment opportunities due to lack of skills, education, and discrimination. \- **Skills Mismatch**: The skills they possess may not align with available job opportunities. \- **Exploitation**: Ethnic groups are sometimes exploited in the labor market, facing low wages and poor working conditions. **5.Environment:** \- **Deforestation**: Loss of forests due to logging, mining, and agricultural expansion threatens their ancestral lands and livelihoods. \- **Mining Activities**: Large-scale mining operations can displace communities and pollute the environment. \- Climate Change: Climate change impacts their traditional farming practices and food security. \- **Pollution**: Pollution from industrial activities and waste disposal affects their health and environment. \- **Land Grabbing**: Illegal land grabbing and encroachment on their ancestral domains threaten their cultural identity and livelihoods. **6.Cultural Preservation:** \- **Language Loss**: The erosion of traditional languages due to assimilation and lack of support for language preservation. \- **Traditional Arts:** The decline of traditional arts and crafts due to lack of support and economic opportunities. \- **Loss of Traditional Knowledge**: The loss of traditional knowledge about medicine, agriculture, and environmental management. **7.Socioeconomic Inequities**: \- **Poverty**: Ethnic groups are disproportionately affected by poverty due to limited access to resources and opportunities. \- **Housing**: Inadequate housing conditions and lack of access to safe and affordable housing. \- **Infrastructure**: Limited access to basic infrastructure like roads, electricity, and water. \- **Social Exclusion**: Marginalization and exclusion from social and political processes. **8.Discrimination:** \- **Historical Discrimination**: Ethnic groups have faced historical discrimination and marginalization, resulting in systemic disadvantages. \- **Loss of Ancestral Lands:** Displacement from their ancestral lands due to development projects and land grabbing. \- **Pressure to Assimilate**: Pressure to abandon their traditional ways of life and practices. \- **Loss of Identity and Culture**: Erosion of their cultural identity and traditions due to assimilation and lack of support. **22. APPLAI**: reside in the Western Mountain Province, specifically in the municipalities of **Besao**, **Sagada**, and parts of **Sabangan**, **Bauko**, and **Tadian**. They **share similarities with the Kankanaey** people, often referred to as **"Kankanaey of the Mountain Province."** **Language**: speak **Kankanaey-Applai,** a branch of the ***Cordilleran*** languages, closely related to the Kankanaey language. **Livelihood**: engage in diverse **economic** activities, including: Rice terrace cultivation, Slash and burn agriculture (kaingin), Camote farming, Hunting and foraging, Handicrafts (pottery, weaving, bamboo basketry). **Religion:** They practice **animism** blended with ancestor worship, believing in spirits inhabiting the natural world. **Clothing**: **Bahag**: Male traditional clothing covering the private parts. **Pinagpagan**: A variant of the "**gateng**" (**tapis**), worn by **Applai** women. **Festivals**: **- Tayaw (fly):** A traditional dance performed during community events, celebrations, and rituals. \- **Pattong**: A community dance with variations in each municipality. \- **Balangbang**: A dance requiring numerous participants to beat gongs and women dancers. **Famous Delicacies:** \- **Pinuneg**: Cordilleran sausage made from pork innards, blood, and spices. \- **Balaw-balaw:** Pickled shrimp fermented with salt and angkak (red yeast rice). \- **Patupat**: A glutinous rice delicacy common in the northern Philippines. **23. BALANGAO** - live in the **Mountain Province**, known for their resilience and rich cultural heritage. **Language:** They speak the **Balangao** language, primarily used by the Balangao tribe and some nearby tribes. **Livelihood:** primarily rely on **agriculture**, including: **Terrace rice farming, Slash and burn agriculture** **Religion**: They practice **animism**, believing in spirits inhabiting the natural world. **Clothing:** **Patadyong & Blouse: T**raditional clothing for **women**. **G-string (Bahag)**: Traditional clothing for **men**. **Festival**: **Lang-Ay Festival**: A founding anniversary celebration held every first week of April in the Mountain Province, showcasing their cultural heritage. **Famous Delicacies:** \- **Binakle**: A traditional dish. \- **Pinikpikan**: A traditional dish. **24. BONTOC** : reside in the Mountain Province, known for their strong sense of community, rice terraces, intricate weaving, and basketry skills. **Language**: speak the **Bontoc** language, belonging to the ***Malayo-Polynesian*** branch of the Austronesian language family. **Livelihood:** They primarily rely on **agriculture**, particularly **rice farming**, and are known for their **rice terraces.** **Religion**: traditionally practiced an indigenous **animistic** religion, believing in a supreme god called "**Mabigat**" and various deities associated with nature. **Clothing: Wanes**: A **loincloth** worn by **men**, made from woven fabric with intricate geometric patterns. **Lufid**: A **wrap-around skirt** worn by **women**, featuring colorful geometric designs. **Festival**: **Lang-Ay Festival**: An ***annual*** event held every ***April*** in the Mountain Province, showcasing their cultural heritage and celebrating a good harvest. **Famous Delicacies:** \- **Inandila**: A sticky rice cake made from glutinous rice, coconut milk, and sugar. \- **Kalamay**: A sweet delicacy made from glutinous rice, coconut milk, and brown sugar. \- **Etag**: Cured and smoked pork, sometimes called "Igorot ham." **25. PREJUDICE :** is a **preconceived opinion or judgment** without sufficient information or reason. It often targets members of **unfamiliar cultural groups**, such as Indigenous peoples and ethnic groups. **Causes:** \- **Inequalities in Society:** Prejudice arises when people fail to recognize others as equals. \- **Culture**: Differences in cultural practices and ways of life can lead to prejudice. \- **Social Status**: Social hierarchies and power imbalances contribute to prejudice. \- **Traditions**: Unique traditions and beliefs can be misunderstood and lead to prejudice. **Types of Prejudice:** 1. **Cognitive Prejudice:** Based on stereotypes and beliefs that people consider true. 2. **Affective Prejudice**: Based on likes and dislikes, often leading to negative attitudes towards certain groups. 3. **Conative Prejudice**: Refers to discriminatory behaviors and actions stemming from prejudice. **26. INDIGENOUS COMMUNITIES VS. ETHNIC GROUPS** **Indigenous Communities :** Share ancestral ties to lands and resources. Possess unique social and cultural practices. **Ethnic Groups:** Share common racial, linguistic, national, or cultural characteristics. May not necessarily have ancestral ties to a specific land. **Key Differences:** \- Indigenous peoples belong to an ethnicity, but not all ethnic groups are indigenous. \- Indigenous groups have historically occupied a specific area for generations, while ethnic groups may have migrated to a region. \- Ethnic groups share a history and way of life, while indigenous peoples have a long-standing connection to their ancestral lands. **27. POVERTY** is a complex issue encompassing a lack of resources to meet basic needs and participate in society. It\'s more than just not having enough money; it\'s about lacking access to essential resources like food, clothing, and shelter. **Types of Poverty:** **1. Extreme Poverty:** The most severe form, defined by the World Bank as living on less than \$2.15 a day. It involves acute deprivation of basic human needs. **2. Relative Poverty**: A condition where a person\'s income is insufficient to maintain the average standard of living in their society. It\'s defined in comparison to others. **3. Generational Poverty**: A cycle of poverty spanning multiple generations, where individuals lack resources to escape. **4. Urban Poverty**: A complex issue in urban areas, involving a lack of income, access to basic services, and social vulnerability. **5. Rural Poverty**: Poverty experienced by people living in non-urban regions, lacking financial resources and essentials for living. **28.BUGKALOT** : also known as **Ilongots**, reside in **northern Luzon,** Philippines. **Language**: They speak Tagalog, Ilocano, and their native Bugkalot language. **Clothing**: Their traditional attire and artifacts are interwoven with colorful decorations and materials like feathers, animal fur, rattan, and bamboo. **Religion**: The Bugkalot are **animistic**, with different deities for various locations (field, water, ground, forest). **Livelihood**: **Swidden agriculture** (shifting cultivation) is their primary economic activity, supplemented by fishing (especially for those near rivers). They cultivate dry-rice, maize, and cassava, followed by tobacco and vegetables, then sweet potatoes, bananas, and sugarcane as the fields are abandoned. **Delicacies**: The text does not specify particular Bugkalot delicacies. **29. DUMAGAT :** traced to **Negritos**, among the earliest inhabitants. They inhabit the hillsides and mountains of Quezon, Bulacan, Rizal, and Laguna provinces. They are characterized by short stature, dark skin, kinky hair, thick lips, and small noses. **Language**: They primarily speak Filipino and Kapampangan. **Clothing**: Traditional clothing includes **tapis** (skirt) for women and **bahag** (breech cloth) for men. Breastfeeding mothers wear a piece of fabric slung from the shoulders. **Religion**: The Dumagat are **animistic**, with beliefs varying between individuals. They have also adopted some beliefs from their **Christian** neighbors. **Livelihood**: Traditional **hunting** and **fishing** are their main livelihoods, along with cultivating crops like camote, banana, and coconut. The **ICCA** (Indigenous and Community Conserved Area) provides medicinal plants. **Delicacies**: **Ginataang Pugahan na may Susô**, ingredients: (pugahan, susô, onion, garlic, ginger, tanglad, chili, pepper, salt, gata) and preparation (cooked in open fire for seven minutes). ***(Cooked in bamboo).*** **30. GADDANG TRIBE :** are an ethnolinguistic group inhabiting the **eastern Cordillera of Luzon**, Philippines. They are known for their unique culture, **opulent** attire, and distinct language. **Language:** Gaddang language has five subgroups in which has unique vocabulary and pronunciation variations. --- ***Gaddang Proper, Yogad, Maddukayang, Katalangan, Iraya.*** **Religion :** most Gaddang converted to **Christianity** by 1900, a minority retained their indigenous religion until the 1970s. Their traditional beliefs center around deities like: 1. **Nano Lay**: The creator deity and cultural hero. 2. **Dasal**: The god of warfare and bravery. 3. **Bunag**: The god of the earth, responsible for fertility and harvests. 4. **Limat**: The god of the sea, overseeing fishing and navigation. **Livelihood :** Gaddang practice **two farming systems**: 1. **Uma cultivation (upland Gaddang):** Rice is the staple crop, harvested from July to December. 2. **Plow farming (lowland Gaddang):** Rice and corn are grown from April to October, followed by tobacco from October to March. **Delicacies** 1. **Inandila**: A glutinous rice flour delicacy, often served at important events. It is named after the Gaddang word for "tongue" due to its shape. 2. **Pancit Batil Patong**: A unique noodle dish with an egg drop soup-like sauce and various toppings. **Clothing : Women - Tapis or Aken**: A long cotton cloth wound around the waist. **Barawasi**: A long-sleeved blouse with colorful beads. **Bakwat**: A beaded belt. **Men ---** **Bahag**: A simple loincloth often adorned with beads. **Girdle**: Holds the bahag in place. **Tattooing**: Common for both men and women, signifying a passage to heaven. **Festivals :** Gaddang people have various festivals that celebrate their cultural heritage and traditions. **31. IBALOI -** an indigenous ethnic group found in **Benguet** province, Northern Philippines. Their origin is traced back to a couple who survived a great flood. **Language :** Ibaloi language has **three dialects:** **Boko,  Daklan, and Kabayan.** They also speak **Ilocano** and **Tagalog** as **second** languages. **Religion :** They practice **polytheism** and **animism**, believing in ancestral spirits (**amed**) and a supreme being (**Kavuniyan or Kabunyan**). They traditionally practiced **mummification**. **Livelihood:** are primarily **agricultural** people, cultivating rice-terraced fields. Some work as **miners in Benguet's gold** and **silver mines.** **Festival :** The Ibaloi Festival runs from **October 1^st^ to October 29^th^.** It features workshops and lectures on Ibaloi culture, including clothing, tools, plants, language, dance, and traditional crafts. The **Bendiyan dance** is a significant ritual performed for various reasons, including healing, relief from calamities, and celebrating harvests. **Delicacies** \- Pinikpikan: A traditional dish made with a chicken beaten until its bones are bruised, then cooked. \- Kinuday: Smoked pork, a traditional method of preserving meat.