Physiology Exam #2 .docx

Cardio Review Know the major components of blood and their basic function: - Normal blood: Females hematocrit / Males: hematocrit - of blood is plasma o Components of plasma: water ), proteins , nutrients, hormones - Plasma proteins that make up : albumin , globulins , fibrinogen o Albumin: tran...

Cardio Review Know the major components of blood and their basic function: - Normal blood: Females hematocrit / Males: hematocrit - of blood is plasma o Components of plasma: water ), proteins , nutrients, hormones - Plasma proteins that make up : albumin , globulins , fibrinogen o Albumin: transport lipids, type of protein, maintains blood osmolarity o Globulins: transport and immune responses, ex. Antibodies o Fibrinogen: blood clotting (netting) - Granulocytes: neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils o Neutrophils: first to arrive and fight bacteria, phagocytes, most common leukocyte o Eosinophils: kill eukaryotes (parasites or fungi), phagocytic, release antihistamines o Basophils: release histamine (promotes inflammation) and stimulate immune response - Agranulocytes: lymphocytes and monocytes o Lymphocytes: learning, produce antibodies and memory, adaptive immunity o Monocytes: become macrophages, phagocytic Hemoglobin: four amino acid chains to one molecule of iron-containing pigment heme (for O2 to bind to) Erythrocyte (red blood cell): produced in bone marrow, no nucleus (can’t replicate or make proteins), fxn to carry hemoglobin Sickle cells- mutation in one of the hemoglobin genes, sickle shaped (because hemoglobin isn’t bound to iron heme) red blood cell that doesn’t flow through tissues well/gets stuck (especially in the spleen), helps fight malaria, low O2 levels Understand the role of arachidonic acid, cyclooxygenase, thrombin, fibrinogen and platelets in the response to vascular damage: Arachidonic acid- converts to inflammatory chemicals by enzymes such as cycloxygenase Cyclooxygenase- converts arachidonic acid to prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and prostacyclin (inflammation -blocked by NSAIDS (aspirin, ibuprofen, etc.) Thrombin- takes fibrinogen and turns it into fibrin Fibrinogen- gets turned into fibrin, which forms a net and forms the clot within vessel Platelets- derived from megakaryocytes, forms temporary “plug” during clotting process to seal small openings in the damaged blood vessel Plasmin- dissolves clot, breaks fibrin down Know what SAIDs and NSAIDs target: SAIDs (steroidal) - block all eicosanoid inflammatory pathways, stronger, more side-effects -prevents making arachidonic acid Ex. cortisol NSAIDS (non-steroidal) - more specific, block less pathways further down, but less side-effects - blocks cyclooxygenase Ex. ibuprofen, aspirin Know the major differences between veins and arteries: Veins- take blood back to the heart, low pressure, contains valves, more volume of blood distributed within the veins, deoxygenated Arteries- take blood away from the heart, walls are more muscular and elastic, changes/regulates pressure, higher pressure than in veins, oxygenated Know the basic structure of the heart: Chambers, valves, major vessels, direction of blood flow, oxygenation: Blood flow- from the right atrium to the right ventricle, then pumped into pulmonary circuit, returns into the left atrium, then down the left ventricle, then leaves the heart from from the aorta, and goes to the body. Chambers- 2 atria and 2 ventricles Valves- semilunar valves (aortic and pulmonary) and atrioventricular valves (tricuspid on R and bicuspid/mitral L) Oxygenation of blood occurs at pulmonary capillaries Pulmonary arteries- leave the heart from the right ventricles Understand electrical conduction through the heart. Know the major nodes and fibers: SA node- pacemakers, generates own action potential to spread throughout heart Atrioventricular valve- carries action potential to purkinje fibers Purkinje fibers- causes contraction of heart from bottom to top Intercalated discs - allow electricity to flow through cardiac muscle Know the major differences between normal action potentials and cardiac action potentials: Extended refractory period- allows for cardiac cells to fully contract before another electrical event can occur to prevent tetanus and overstimulating the heart Rapid depolarization that’s maintained (plateau) Has a longer action potential Calcium channels open during depolarization plateau Lack of resting potential Know what each wave in the ECG corresponds to: P wave: SA node generates action potential and depolarizes the atria, atrium contracts (systole) and blood flows to the ventricles, blood passes through the AV valves QRS complex: Atrium relaxes, represents depolarization of ventricles followed by contraction of ventricles and blood leaving the heart, purkinje fibers fire “LUB” sound → AV valves close T wave: repolarization of the ventricles and marks the beginning of ventricular relaxation “DUB” sound → semilunar valves close Know what systolic and diastolic pressure represents and how to calculate pulse pressure and MAP Understand the relationship between resistance, flow and pressure: Systolic pressure: SQUEEZING, Heart contracting, pressure at highest, first sound you hear when taking manual blood pressure, top number, represents the amount of pressure in the arteries while heart is beating Diastolic: DILATION, heart relaxing, pressure lowest, last sound you hear, bottom number Pulse pressure: difference between systolic/diastolic Mean arterial pressure (MAP): closer to diastolic b/c heart is mostly relaxing Flow= change in pressure / resistance Increasing pressure = increases blood flow and vice versa (proportional) Increasing Resistance = decreases flow and vice versa (inverse) If flow increases, resistance is the same, pressure increased If flow is the same, resistance increased, pressure increased Synthesize concepts to understand the overall cardiac cycle: Know and understand how changing one of these will alter the others CO-cardiac output = stroke volume x heart rate, volume of blood that gets pumped out of the heart over time, performance of heart based on CO HR-heart rate, affected by autonomic intervention, hormones, fitness, and age, increasing HR decreases SV and ESV and increases CO and EDV, has greater influence on CO than SV SV-stroke volume = EDV - ESV, how much blood gets squeezed out of the L ventricle per heartbeat, affected by heart size, fitness, gender, contractility, filling time, duration of contraction, preload (EDV), and afterload (resistance) venous return- blood circulation back to the heart facilitated by breathing and muscle contractions increasing VR increases EDV and SV peripheral resistance - resistance in body, what heart is pushing against Contractility - the force of contraction of the heart muscle increasing contractility increases SV and vice versa Afterload- pressure required for heart to pump blood out and into the body increased afterload decreases SV and vice versa constricting peripheral arterioles increases afterload and vice versa EDV- end of/peak relaxation (T wave), amount of blood left in ventricles at the end of relaxation, after “dub” sound increasing EDV increases SV and CO (and vice versa) EDV increased by also increasing relaxation time and venous return ESV- end of/max contraction, amount of blood in ventricles after contraction increasing contractility decreases ESV (SV and CO also increase), increasing afterload increases ESV (and decreases SV and CO), constricting peripheral arterioles increases afterload and vice versa Also know the equations CO = SV x HR, SV = EDV – ESV Know the basic difference between the 3 layers of blood vessels: Tunica external- mostly connective tissue Tunica media- muscle layer Tunica intima- mostly endothelial tissue Understand the role of precapillary sphincters and what regulates local blood flow: Precapillary sphincters- allows blood to pass through the capillary bed, opens when O2 levels in blood are low (ex. Blood becoming acidic during exercise would open sphincter) Basic understanding of lymph fluid, vessels and nodes: Lymph fluid: composed of primarily WBCs interstitial fluid becomes lymph fluid once it enters lymph vessels brings nutrients to cells and removes wastes from cells proteins, fats, salts Lymph vessels: not muscular have valves low pressure drains into veins near clavicle to go into blood stream Lymph nodes: “war takes place” fights infection- prevents it from going into blood lymphocytes (T-Cells & B-Cells) primarily found Know the differences between lymph and blood vessels: Know the stuff above about Lymph vessels and how they compare to arteries and veins - valves, low pressure etc. Understand the role of prostaglandins, histamine, NO, ANP, angiotensin II, aldosterone, renin in blood pressure regulation: Prostaglandins- released by activated platelets, vasoconstrictor (constrict precapillary sphincters), decreases blood flow, restores homeostasis (increases BP) Histamine- inflammatory and allergic rxns NO- nitric oxide, vasodilator, relax precapillary sphincters, increase blood flow, restores homeostasis (decreases BP) ANP- atrial natriuretic peptide: vasodilator and triggers excretion of sodium in urine to lower BP Angiotensin II- endocrine (renal) control, regulates blood volume and pressure, vasoconstrictor (increases BP) Aldosterone- endocrine (renal) control, regulates blood volume and pressure, know about its role in causing salt reabsorption in the DCT (increases BP) Renin- know that is activates the pathway that leads to an increase in angiotensin and aldosterone (increases BP) Understand how the cardiovascular system reacts to changes in pressure, oxygen / CO2 levels and pH: Increased blood pressure- increases rate of baroreceptor firing to lower pressure (restore homeostasis) and lower heart rate Decreased blood pressure- slows rate of baroreceptor firing to increase pressure (restore homeostasis) and increase heart rate Understand the importance of coronary blood flow and what can occur if it is blocked: Coronary Arteries (R and L)- supplies the heart with oxygenated blood Atherosclerosis- plaque formed by buildup of fatty, calcified deposits in an artery Thrombosis- blood clot blocking an artery Blockage can lead to myocardial infarction- tissue death, heart attack Know Stroke - interrupted blood flow to the brain (ischemic or hemorrhagic) MI (myocardial infarction)- heart attack, interrupted blood flow to the heart Thrombosis- blood clot angina pectoris- chest pain, not heart attack but could become one, no tissue death heart failure- heart failing to pump out enough blood Understand how the cardiovascular system reacts to exercise: systolic pressure increases (contractions) heart grows bc it is working harder → pump blood more efficiently Increased contractility Increased venous return Endocrine Review For each hormone know: Where it’s released from, it’s target, effect at target, and regulation of release List of hormones to know: ADH- directly released from a neuron in posterior pituitary, targets collecting duct in the kidneys, sweat glands, circulatory system, effects water balance (high levels increase water reabsorption) Oxytocin- released from posterior pituitary,stimulates milk release, targets female reproductive system, triggers uterine contractions during childbirth ACTH (Adrenocorticotrophin) - targets adrenal glands, responsible for releasing cortisol, induces targets to produce glucocorticoids, which regulate metabolism and the stress response released by anterior pituitary TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone) - targets thyroid gland, stimulates the release of TH, which regulates metabolism, released by anterior pituitary GH (growth hormone) - Targets liver, bone and muscles, induces targets to produce insulin-like growth factors (IGF) IGFs stimulate body growth and a higher metabolic rate, released by anterior pituitary Prolactin- stimulates milk production, released by anterior pituitary FSH (folic stimulating hormone) - targets reproductive system, stimulates production of sperm and eggs. Developing the actual hormones, released by anterior pituitary LH (luteinizing hormone) - targets reproductive system, stimulates production of sex hormones by gonads. Causing release of hormones, released by anterior pituitary ANP: vasodilator; cardiac hormone that promotes sodium and water excretion Epinephrine/norepinephrine- released from adrenal medulla, stimulates fight or flight response Cortisol- increases blood glucose levels Blocks inflammation (SAID) Aldosterone: glomerulosa of the adrenal cortex to the kidneys, regulates mineral balance, increases BP!! Helps kidneys retain sodium which then causes retention of water Androgens: reticularis of the adrenal cortex to the reproductive system, helps with secondary sex characteristics during puberty with significant estrogen release in women Released in response to luteinizing hormone (LH) EPO: released by kidney into bone marrow, Stimulates production of RBC’s Renin: Kidneys to liver, catalyzes the conversion of angiotensin produced by the liver into the hormone known as angiotensin I Leptin: adipose cells to the brain, binding to brain neurons involved in energy intake and expenditure - binding of leptin increases feeling of fullness! Melatonin: released by the pineal gland, aids in sleep cycles, released 30 mins-1hr after darkness T3 / T4: thyroid hormones, increase in metabolism and basal metabolic rate, if diet is lacking in iodine, T3 and T4 are not able to be produced!! Calcitonin- stimulated by increased blood calcium levels, released from thyroid gland, reduces blood Ca2+ levels parathyroid hormone: from parathyroid gland to the skeletal system and kidneys Stimulates osteoclasts, causing calcium to be released from bones and into the blood for circulation, and then stimulates calcium reabsorption back into the kidneys Gastrin: from stomach to the circulatory system Stimulates muscle contractions of stomach and release of gastric secretions from parietal cells (HCI) and chief cells (pepsinogen) Secretin: from small intestine to liver, or from pancreas to stomach Inhibits gastric secretion and stomach mobility Stimulates liver secretion of bicarbonate Stimulates pancreas to secrete alkaline solution due to acidity of chyme entering the small intestine CCK: small intestine to stomach, gallbladder, and pancreas Increases stomach motility and gastric secretion Stimulates gallbladder bile Stimulates pancreas to secrete enzymes and hepatopancreatic valve relaxes Insulin- released by the pancreas (beta cells) in response to increased blood glucose levels Lowers blood glucose levels!! Glucagon- released from pancreas (alpha cells) and breaks down glycogen in liver increases blood glucose levels Estrogen and Progesterone: from ovaries to the reproductive system Stimulates the development of the female sex characteristics and prepares body for childbirth Involved in female menstrual cycle Testosterone: from the testes to the reproductive system Stimulates the development of male sex characteristics and sperm production Release is triggered by luteinizing hormone (LH) Understand the basic difference between steroid hormone and peptide / amine hormone communication: Peptide and amine hormone communication: Short term effects, body can get rid of quickly Generally don’t cross membranes (except for T3 and T4) Must interact with periphery receptor on cell Steroid hormones: Can pass through membranes (carried on carrier proteins) Stay in body for a long time, long term effects Can communicated directly with DNA to make proteins Know the differences between anterior and posterior pituitary structure and hormone release: Posterior pituitary: Extension of the hypothalamus nerves from cell bodies in the hypothalamus Instantaneous release of hormones into the bloodstream from hypothalamus Anterior pituitary: Hypothalamus releases hormones into bloodstream which then go through portal system in the anterior pituitary with then releases another hormones (ex. TRH to TSH) Understand the difference between positive and negative feedback: Negative feedback: returns body back to homeostasis after stimulus triggers a change in our body Positive feedback: enhances the effect of the stimulus (ex. positive feedback stimulates release of Oxytocin to increase cervical contractions during childbirth) Know the layers of the adrenal cortex that each hormone is released from (aldosterone, cortisol and androgens): SUPERFICIAL Zona Glomerulosa: mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) Zona Fasciculata: glucocorticoids (cortisol) Zona Reticularis: androgens DEEP Understand that steroid hormones are made from cholesterol :) Also know that estrogen is made from testosterone: Enzyme known as aromatase causes estrogen to be made from testosterone Understand the role of these hormones in the listed diseases Pituitary disorders: disease of GH Acromegaly: excess GH during adulthood (hypersecretion of GH) Thickening of bones and soft tissues in adults Especially hands, feet, & face Problems in childhood or adolescence GH excess (hypersecretion) Gigantism GH deficit (hyposecretion) Pituitary dwarfism (rare bc GH can now be genetically engineered) Goiter Iodine dependent goiter- low T4 (thyroid) levels in the blood Inc. TSH levels stimulate thyroid growth causing it to become enlarged Without T3/T4 being produced there is nothing providing negative feedback on ant. Pituitary → TSH will continue being produced Diseases involving insulin Type I diabetes: insulin dependent Body is not secreting enough insulin Results in excessive urination & build up of ketones Nerve degeneration due to lack of circulation Juvenile onset More severe, treated with insulin injections Type II diabetes: insulin resistant Body still secretes insulin, but is no longer reacting to the insulin as it has become desensitized Not as severe, treated w/ lifestyle changes (diet, exercise, etc.) Parathyroid disorders Hyperparathyroidism: excess PTH secretion Parathyroid tumor Bones become soft, fragile, & deformed Ca2+ & phosphate levels increase, can also lead to tetany Promotes renal calculi formation Hypoparathyroidism Surgical excision during thyroid surgery Fatal tetany in 3-4 days due to rapid decline in blood calcium levels Cushing syndrome: excess cortisol secretion Hyperglycemia, hypertension, weakness, edema Rapid muscle and bone loss due to protein catabolism Abnormal fat deposition around face and neck “Moon face” & “buffalo hump” Renal Review Know the basic structure of the kidney and nephron: Kidney: Medulla: where the pyramids are located (which holds urine) Deeper you go into medulla the higher the concentration of urea is Cortex: outer portion of kidney Nephron: Glomerulus: start of the nephron Collection of blood vessels covered by capsule Podocytes around vessels Filtration takes place here Convoluted tubules: Reabsorption takes place here Proximal tubule is closer to glomerulus and distal tubule is farther away from glomerulus PCT- amino acids, glucose, H2O, bicarbonate, and calcium are reabsorbed DCT- sodium reabsorbed and potassium secreted IF aldosterone is present, bicarbonate and salt reabsorbed Nephron Loop (Loop of Henle) Reabsorption also occurs here Descends into medulla (in the pyramids) Collecting duct: “end point” H2O reabsorbed if ADH is present Deposits urine into ureter Know the basic structure of the glomerulus (Bowman’s capsule): Glomerulus’ main role = FILTRATION Pressure receptors are present If pressure increases, than filtration will also increase (bc more is being pushed out) Has podocytes around blood vessels (cells with feet) Make slits that allow for bigger things such as molecules to pass through the walls Understand the difference between filtration, secretion and reabsorption: Filtration: fluid passing through filter in glomerulus (based on blood pressure) Secretion: getting rid of materials, put in urine Reabsorption: taking something from nephron and putting it in blood Understand the factors which regulate GFR: Blood pressure increases = GFR increases Decrease in blood pressure = decreased GFR (increases toxins in body) Increase amount of blood reaching the glomerulus, increase the GFR Understand how clearance is used to measure kidney function: creatine and inulin in urine levels can estimate GFR Understand where and how these major molecules are filtered, secreted and/or reabsorbed: Glucose- reabsorbed in PCT amino acids- reabsorbed in PCT Na+- reabsorbed in PCT, ascending limb of loop, and DCT (only if aldosterone is present for DCT) K+- secreted in distal tube if aldosterone is present Ca 2+- mainly absorbed in PCT H+- secreted in proximal and distal tube HCO3- reabsorbed in proximal and distal tube H20- reabsorbed in proximal tube, descending limb of loop, and distal tube (if ADH) is present Understand the role of the medullary gradient in reabsorption of salt and water. Water is reabsorbed in the descending limb → increasing osmolarity Salt is reabsorbed in the ascending limb → decreasing osmolarity Know the role of urea in maintaining that gradient Urea concentration increases as you travel farther into the medulla/pyramids which causes water to be reabsorbed. Understand the mechanism of action of ADH, aldosterone, angiotensin II, and renin: ADH: causes water reabsorption in collecting duct Aldosterone: causes Na+ reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule and potassium to be secreted Angiotensin II: released by liver to blood causes blood vessels to constrict Stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone (to reabsorb Na+) Renin: released by kidneys in response to low blood pressure causes enzyme cascade and release of angiotensin Understand how pH is regulated by the kidney: kidneys secrete acid (H+) in proximal & distal tubules Reabsorbs bicarbonate (HCO3-) in proximal and distal tubules deals with chronic pH issues Be able to diagnose the general cause of acidosis and alkalosis based on CO2 and HCO3- levels: Vomiting – metabolic alkalosis pH increases (bc vomiting out acid) → breathing decreases to bring pH down CO2 increases (bc breathing slows in order to bring the pH back down) Diarrhea – metabolic acidosis pH decreases (bc HCO3- isn’t reabsorbed) → increase breathing CO2 decreases (bc breathing increases) Hyperventilation – respiratory alkalosis Increased breathing pH increases bc so much acid breath CO2 decreases bc so much breathing Asthma – respiratory acidosis Decreased breathing - less acid out CO2 increases (due to difficulty breathing normally) pH decreases Digestive and Hepatic Review Know the major structures and organs in the digestive system and their major functions: Mouth: Breaks down carbs with an enzyme called amylase & mastication Esophagus: Muscular tube that food travels down Stomach: Stomach acid denatures proteins (unfolds) & kills invaders like bacteria Small intestine: most digestion done here Enzymes are released to break down food & most absorption is done here too Large intestine: Mostly compacting feces but some fat soluble substances are digested here Package up food and get it ready for absorption Know the main components of the major layers of the upper digestive tract: Know the basic role of CCK, leptin and ghrelin in controlling appetite / hunger: CCK: Leptin: blocks hunger Produced by fat cells Ghrelin: stimulate hunger Ghrelin is produced in stomach NPY activates hunger in the brain Understand where and how the major nutrients are digested and absorbed: Carbs, Proteins, Fats, Water, vitamins and minerals: Carbs: Proteins: Fats: Water: Vitamins: Minerals: Know the major sphincters of the digestive system, how they are regulated and their function: Understand the activation and role of CCK, secretin, and gastrin: CCK: released when chyme enters the small intestine, slows down the stomach Secretin: released when chyme enters the small intestine, slows down the stomach Gastrin: released when bolus is in stomach, stimulates the stomach Know the function of chief, parietal and mucous cells secretions (HCl, pepsinogen / pepsin, mucous) Chief - pepsinogen/pepsin, parietal - HCl Know the major functions of the liver: Understand the basics of hemoglobin breakdown and bilirubin / urobilinogen formation: Heme in hemoglobin becomes bilirubin, the liver breaks down bilirubin into other products one being urobilinogen. Urobilinogen is excreted in urine and feces. The iron in hemoglobin is recycled. Know these enzymes and components: Amylase: carb breakdown Peptidase: protein breakdown Lipase: lipid breakdown Micelles: fat balls absorbed in the intestines Chylomicrons: package of fat delivered from intestines to lymph. Eventually do go to the liver after making a trip to the body LDL - lipoprotein made in the liver that represents fat and cholesterol being delivered to the body - “bad” HDL - lipoprotein made in the liver that picks up fat and cholesterol to be eventually destroyed in the liver - “good” Reproduction Review Know the major structure of the male and female reproductive system and their basic functions: Testis: produce sperm & testosterone Epididymis: sperm maturation & storage vas deferens: transports mature sperm to the urethra Prostate: secretes fluid that nourishes and protects sperm Together, this fluid & sperm make up semen seminal vesicles: produce most of the volume of the semen bulbourethral gland: produce a mucus (precum) prior to ejaculation Neutralizes traces of acid urine in the urethra & lubricates the urethra to smooth the passage of semen during ejaculation Urethra: carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body Penis: to pass urine & semen Ovaries: produce eggs & hormones (estrogen & progesterone) fallopian tubes: transport the ova from the ovary to the uterus each month Fertilization occurs here Uterus: Receive, retain, & nourish a fertilized ovum Vagina: copulatory organ & birth canal Labia: closes and protects the vagina Clitoris: sexual arousal Know what occurs in each of the phases of the menstrual cycle, including the hormones involved, the endometrial changes and what occurs in the ovaries: Follicular stage (days 1-7): FSH stimulates the developing follicles to grow After about 10 days a spike in LH, FSH and estrogen occurs right before the egg release (ovulation) After ovulation the corpus luteum releases progesterone and estrogen, the progesterone causes the endometrium to thicken After about a week the corpus luteum dies and becomes the corpus albicans. Now it no longer releases progesterone so the endometrium disintegrates which causes menstruation Know the basic events of fertilization, initial development and implantation: understand that fertilization takes place in the fallopian tubes, but I will not ask details - you do not need to know morula, blastula gastrula or the 3 germs layers. Understand the role of LH and FSH in sperm formation and testosterone release: LH is primarily responsible for testosterone production in males FSH for sperm production Immune Review Know the major different WBC and their basic functions: Basophil: release histamine (alarm system) Neutrophil: kill bacteria (most common) Eosinophil: kill eukaryotic cells & worms, release antihistamines Lymphocytes: specific immunity contains T and B cells Monocytes: eat things, become macrophages Macrophage: alert helper T cells (cops on patrol) Natural killer cell: notice when our own cells are bad/sick/old (fighting cancers) T cells and B cells: adaptive immune response Know the basic differences between the innate and adaptive immune response: Innate immune response: Adaptive immune response: gain immunity Understand the role of the complement system: Know how the immune system reacts after injury: Mast cells detect injury to nearby cells and release histamine, initiating inflammatory response. Histamine increases blood flow to the wound sites, bringing in phagocytes and other immune cells that neutralize pathogens. The blood influx causes the wound to swell, redden, and become warm and painful. Understand the roles of: Macrophages: activate the helper cells, innate immune response helper T cells: specific immune response cytotoxic T cells: look for infected cells and sends perforins to blow holes and destroy cell B cells: produce antibodies memory cells: “lead to differentiation of more plasma cells during secondary responses” Antibodies: (don’t need to know) IgM pentameter: causes pathogens to stick together IgG monomer: attack RH antibodies (+,-) of blood typing Secretory IgA dimer: saliva, tears IgE monomer: on basophil cells, causes histamine release (allergic reaction)