Physiological & Biological Psychology Reviewer PDF

PHYSIOLOGICAL & BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY (REVIEWER) ____________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 1 : Foundation of Biological THREE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER and Physiological Psychology 1.​ Perception occ...

PHYSIOLOGICAL & BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY (REVIEWER) ____________________________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 1 : Foundation of Biological THREE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER and Physiological Psychology 1.​ Perception occurs in the brain ❖​ Biological Psychology 2.​ Mental activity and certain types of -​ known as physiological psychology brain activity are inseparable -​ Is the study of the physiological, evolutionary, and developmental 3.​ To be cautious about what is an mechanisms of behavior explanation and what is not and experience. -​ deals with the biology of behavior, ❖​ Four Categories of Biological focusing primarily on the nervous explanation of Behavior​ system, genetics, and hormones 1.​ Physiological Explanation: relates ❖​ MAJOR ISSUES a behavior to the activity of the brain activity and other organs 1.​ Mind Brain Problem -​ Is the mind part of the body, or the 2.​ Ontogenetic explanation: body part of the mind? If they are describes how a structure or distinct, then how do they interact? behavior develops And which of the two is in charge? Monism - consist of only one type of 3.​ Evolutionary explanation : being reconstructs the evolutionary history Dualism - minds are one type of of structure or behavior substance and matter is another 4.​ Functional explanation : describes 2.​ Nature vs. Nurture why a structure or behavior evolved -​ How do genetics and environment as it did contribute to behavior? Heredity - genetic inheritance form parents Environment - external factors such CHAPTER 2 : NERVOUS SYSTEM as culture, upbringing and life experiences ❖​ Nervous System -​ Responsible for communication ❖​ GENETIC OF BEHAVIOR within the body. -​ Plays a crucial role in shaping -​ Controls voluntary and involuntary behavior actions -​ Composed of neurons and ​ Types of Genes supporting glial cells 1.​ Sex-linked Genes: genes located on sex chromosome 2 main divisions: 2.​ Sex-limited Genes: genes that are CNS (Brain and spinal cord) expressed differently on males and PNS (Nerves outside the brain and Females spinal cord) ❖​ BRAIN ❖​ NEURONS -​ The control center for behavior and -​ Specialized cells that transmit experience. electrical and chemical signals ​ -​ The brain has an enormous number of divisions and subareas Dendrites: Receive signals from other neurons Cell body (Soma): Processes information Axon: Transmits signals to other neurons ❖​ SPINAL CORD Synapse:The junction between neurons -​ Connects the brain to the body where neurotransmitters are released -​ Facilitates reflexes and signal transmission -​ Damage to the spinal cord can result ❖​ GLIAL CELLS in paralysis, showing its critical -​ cells provide structural and role in body movement. functional support to neurons ❖​ PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM Types of Glial cells:​ -​ transmits sensory information to the CNS and carries motor commands 1.​ Astrocytes: Maintain the from the CNS to muscles and blood-brain barrier and provide organs nutrients 2.​ Microglia: Act as immune cells, ❖​ SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM removing waste and protecting -​ Controls voluntary muscle against infections movements and transmits sensory 3.​ Oligodendrocytes (CNS) & information to the CNS. Schwann Cells (PNS) : Produce myelin, which insulates axons and ❖​ AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM speeds up signal transmission -​ Controls involuntary body functions -​ Essential for neuron survival and like heart rate, digestion, respiration efficient communication and blood pressure. 2 DIVISIONS ❖​ CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM -​ Processes information, controls 1.​ Sympathetic NS : Fight or Flight movement, regulates body functions - Dilates pupil and enables thinking and emotion - Secretes adrenaline and accelerates heart rate ❖​ BRAIN - Stimulates stomach -​ Composed of different regions 2.​ Parasympathetic NS : Rest and controlling movement, emotions, Digest, maintain homeostasis in memory and thought body​ - Constricts pupil and slow heart rate ​ Major parts of the Brain: ​ - Stimulate saliva flow - Contracts bladder 1.​ Cerebrum : controls thinking, memory, emotions, sensory processing, and voluntary ❖​ NEUROTRANSMITTERS movements. -​ A chemical messenger that 2.​ Cerebellum : coordinates balance, transmits signals between neurons posture, and fine motor or from neurons to muscles and movements. glands. It plays a key role in brain 3.​ Brainstem : regulates vital function, mood, and body processes. functions like breathing, heart Synapse : narrow junction between rate, and reflexes. two neurons or between a neuron and another cell ​ Four Lobes of the Brain: Synaptic transmission : the process by which neurons 1.​ Frontal Lobe : Decision making and communicate via problem solving. neurotransmitters. 2.​ Parietal Lobe: Sensory processing 3.​ Occipital Lobe: Vision Types of Neurotransmitters 4.​ Temporal Lobe: Hearing and memory 1.​ Acetylcholine (excitatory) : activates the skeletal muscles and is also linked to memory, learning, and sleep.  2.​ Glutamate (excitatory) : most CHAPTER 3: Development and Plasticity common neurotransmitter, and links of the BRAIN​ to memory and learning.​ Part I 3.​ Adrenaline : released in stress situations, creates an energy surge ❖​ Mendelian Genetics which increases heart rate,blood -​ Gregor Mendel : pea plant pressure,and blood flow to the experiment larger muscles.​ -​ Dominant vs Recessive alleles -​ Homozygous vs Heterozygous 4.​ Gamma-aminobutyric acid or Gaba (main inhibitory) : it slows ❖​ Sex Linked genes the firing of neurons and is calming.​ -​ Located on X or Y chromosome -​ (e.g. color blindness) 5.​ Endorphins (inhibitory) : released by the pituitary gland,transmits ❖​ Sex Limited genes pain signals, associated with pain -​ Express only in one sex relief and feelings of pleasure.​ ❖​ Mutation: random changes in DNA 6.​ Noradrenaline/Norepinephrine (excitatory) : similar to ❖​ Epigenetics: environmental impact adrenaline, mainly associated with on gene expression ​ the fight-or-flight mechanism; it is also linked to stress resilience​ Part II : Heredity and Environment -​ Nature (genes) vs Nurture 7.​ Serotonin (inhibitory) : linked to (experience) mood enhancement and calmness. -​ Genes are dynamic, not destiny ​ It regulates appetite, temperature, and muscle movement.​ ❖​ How Genes Influence Behavior? -​ Genes affect neurotransmitter levels 8.​ Dopamine (inhibitory or -​ Influence temperament, risk for excitatory) : plays a key role in disorders (e g. Serotonin transporter reward-motivated behavior and links gene and stress) to mood. ❖​ ADDICTION & the BRAIN Part III : Evolution of Behavior -​ Change in genes frequency over 1.​ Agonists : enhance generation neurotransmitter activity (e.g., -​ Behavior that increases survival is heroin, nicotine) more likely to pass on. 2.​ Antagonists : block neurotransmitter activity ❖​ Evolutionary Psychology (e.g.,naloxone) -​ Explain behavior using evolutionary 3.​ Reuptake inhibitors : prevent perspective (e.g. mate selection, neurotransmitter reabsorption, aggression, parenting) prolonging effects (e.g.,SSRIs,cocaine)​ Part IV : Brain development & Plasticity ❖​ Maturation in the Vertebrate Brain How do drugs affect synaptic transmission? -​ Begins in embryo : hindbrain - midbrain - forebrain - Drugs hijack the brain's reward system, -​ Cortex matures last, usually in increasing dopamine levels adulthood - Long-term drug use alters brain chemistry, leading to tolerance and dependence ❖​ Growth and Dev. of Neuron - Withdrawal symptoms occur when drug use stops, reinforcing addiction -​ Neurogenesis : the birth of neurons -​ Neural stem cells produce new neurons -​ Neurons grow dendrites axons and ❖​ INCREASED BRAIN STIMULATION -​ Different areas of the brain develop BY: at different rates -​ Physical and cognitive therapies -​ Neuroplasticity can be guided by ❖​ PARTS AND FUNCTION OF target stimulation NEURON -​ Repetition of tasks strengthen neural connection 1.​ Axon: transmits signals from neuron to neuron ❖​ ADJUSTMENT IN BEHAVIOR -​ Brain adapts to new situations and 2.​ Myelin sheath: speeds up signal challenges transmission -​ Learning new skills physical or cognitive (e.g. Learning to walk after 3.​ Nodes of Ranvier: gaps in the injury) myelin for faster communication -​ Practice leads to neural changes in motor areas (e.g. switching 4.​ Axon terminals: release dominant hand use for task like neurotransmitters to communicate writing) with other neurons -​ Research shows that brain reorganizes to adapt to new tasks ❖​ Brain & Behavior Dev. (Lifespan) Infancy: rapid brain growth, sensory and motor development Childhood: synaptic pruning, increase in complex cognitive abilities Adolescence: continuing maturation, changes in impulse control Adulthood: brain plasticity allows adaptation, learning, and memory Older age: potential cognitive decline, but plasticity can help recovery ❖​ BRAIN DAMAGE and SHORT TERM RECOVERY -​ Causes of brain damage: stroke, neurotoxins -​ Short-term recovery: swelling reduction, restoration of basic functions -​ Mechanisms of recovery: axon sprouting, neurogenesis ❖​ TYPES OF STROKE 1.​ Ischemic : A blood clot blocks blood flow to the brain. 2.​ Hemorrhagic : Bleeding occurs in or around the brain.