Physio Exam 1 PDF

Introduction Physiology...intellectual point of view that relates Process to Function  Two major approaches to physiology: - -concepttheaically mechanically)...

Introduction Physiology...intellectual point of view that relates Process to Function  Two major approaches to physiology: - -concepttheaically mechanically) I Explain something Teleological - asks ! y Vs Mechanical asks how ? Example Question: The heart contract so O2 can be brought to our body cells  Movement across Membranes Transport across cell membrane Diffusion: A passive process, Do not require the input of energy from Cellsource, like outside ATP. 3  Transport across cell What membrane are some of components ? cell membrane Phospholipid bilayer Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Extracellular side of membrane ↓ Glycolipid Carbohydrate Fibrous protein Glycoprotein “Heads” of phospholipid Double “Tails” of layer of phospholipid Phospholipid molecules (a) Cell membrane (b) a: © Biophoto Associates/Photo Researchers, Inc. ↓Cell membrane hydrophilis Cholesterol Globular molecules protein Hydrophobic fatty acid hydrophobic head “tail” tail Cytoplasmic side Hydrophilic of membrane Phosphate “head” 4  Functions of the Cell Membrane: 1. Physical Isolation 2. Regulation of ⑧ exchange with the environment ze's exchange w/ environment. Entrys exit. Fig 3-4 Check Concept 3. Communication Explain the necessity of the cellular membranes four. between the cell and of functions the environment 4. Support & structure  Some molecules freely come across the cell membrane. E.g. Cholesterol and cholesterol-based molecules Small hydrophobic/ lipophilic molecules↳ Steroid hormones (ex birth control patch). What's another real-life application for this ? ↓ Therapeutic Small uncharged Urea or releases hormone and non-therapeutic. polar molecules it is able to pass · Look into nicotine patches and dermatology products ↳ aklief etc ,. through skin barrier and into blood stream. Large uncharged Existence of hormone polar molecules Estrogen/progesterone tricks body its into thinking pregnant. Ovary as a result Ions ovary does not release egg. Cholesterol-based molecules (e.g. steroid hormones)  Movement across Membranes Cell Membrane: Function #2focuson regulationa - Focus on the regulation of the entry and exit  Proteins perform most of the specific functions of the membrane Transporters Structural Receptors Enzymes FYI: 30% of proteins coded by genome are membrane proteins Give an example of each of membrane protein type. from this unit. Preferrably  Movement across Membranes Permeancy of molecule depends on: Lipid soluble? proportionate Size….small inverse Uncharged/nonpolar ↳ uncharged nonpolar travel across easier Small hydrophobic/ Dif uses lipophilic molecules across Small uncharged Urea polar molecules Large uncharged & ons polar molecules Ions Cholesterol-based Diffuse molecules (e.g. steroid hormones)  Movement can be classified by either energy requirements or physical requirements aka gradient ions = Channels depending on how its gated and whether conditions for opening Transmembrane T are met ECF proteins on ICF and Majority are ion channels Gated: Voltage Gated Mechanically Gated Ligand Gated ↳ opened by chemical molecule ↳ will be relevant in endocrine sys. neurotransmitters nervous sys.  a gration can be saturated can go extenbread ex : · way cells liver undergoes T in > carrier molecule binds to carrier - · Carriers conformational change > molecule is released on - · other USV. for side bigger molecules b/c it would harm the cell to have Nat carriers large channels (open pores) Also transmembrane onEFFICF proteins No direct connection between ECF and ICF Operate slower than channels Facilitated diffusion carriers are NOT pumps (ATPases)!!  Carriers Similar to Enzymes  Catalyze transport process  Have specific substrates (specificity)  Undergo conformational change  Affected by temperature, pH, etc  Subject to competition and saturation  Have allosteric sites Movement can be classified by either energy requirements or physical requirements cell The Active are channes ex (Protein mediated) &orders Figure 5.5  Active Transporter ATPases - > - moves both against - their [] gradient Energy required (ATP) Also called Pump Eg. Na+/K+ ATPase Works against the concentration gradient of the ions. 1st active transport  SODIUM - POTASSIUM PUMP ANIMATED LECTURE https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xweYA-IJTqs  Characteristics of mediated transport Specificity Competition Saturation: # molecules can squeeze in per time ↳ Any time there is a binding size there can be saturation  saturation curve bostudents Transport graph: UT shuttle metaphor ↑ - min 20 ↳ applies for all membran transport Transport maximum Rate (amount/time) Plasma [glucose]  Secondary Active Transport G AKA indirect transport - > cell indirectly for this event to rea. ATP happen ↳ no binding site forATP 1. Active transporter of X from [low] to [high] to sets up gradient for X 2. X binds to 2nd active transporter for Y against its [ ] gradient 3. Pump stops working  Transport stops F Nalglus The thing being - the transported is mone molecule moving to high from low ↳ against [s gradient > - moves glucose low to high Example of 2o AT: Glucose absorption by epithelia the outside boduty,bothens are O involvedion - GLUTZ S Figure 5-23 dim  D molecule being transported is always going against Secondary Active Transport gradient its ↳ "UPN Symport - Antiport - = Cotransport - = Countertransport -  Sodium-Dependent Glucose Transport https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nYC3_3hb54Q Secondary Active Transport: Symport of Glucose across Intestinal Cells and Kidney Cells  attrb a 9) considered Vesicular Transport Assisted transport of large molecules Requires vesicles and ATP Exocytosis and Endocytosis *u Exocytosis > usu -. molecule molecule is usu. Water or dissolved in water Endocytosis:  Phagocytosis  Pinocytosis  Receptor-mediated > - ↳> HIV HIV ex. HIV receptors friggers endocytosis on T-cells => receptor mediated - endocytosis  Summary: Membrane Transport Passive Transport Active Transport Diffusion Primary Active Transport Osmosis Secondary Active Transport Facilitated Diffusion Vesicular Transport Summary of lipid- versus protein-mediated movement across membranes g  Osmolarity & Tonicity Physiology Man Body Fluid Compartments & Body Osmolarity Volume & Osmolarity Disturbances Osmolarity vs. Tonicity RBC Problems > -  Physiology man... 154lb Total body water? Plasma osmolarity? Volumes of distribution?  Physiology man... 154lb 1lb = 0.454kg 154lb = 70kg. Total body water? 70 x 0.6 ~ 42kg. Body water 1L of water = 1kg => 42L Plasma osmolarity? 290~300mOsM Loading… Volumes of distribution? ICF =2/3 ECF 1/3 (plasma 25%, IF 75%) Approach 04 70kg 1) L- 15416 Eg. C) Cal Tbw - plasma in ECF the same across 4) ICFcalc 427-141 = 28L- water in ICF ECF ICF and , , plasma because water diffuses freely across body Cells Body Fluid Compartments ↳ Look into edemas caused by sitting too long. interstitial frid Loading… Figure 5.1a ESSENTIALS – Body Fluid Compartments  Physiological solutions Applied to the body to correct volume/osmolarity imbalances Usually described by two terms Osmolarity: number of particles in a solution ( mol x Dissociation Factor / L = Molarity x Dissociation Factor) # of particles Nall - dissociates into 2 in water Tonicity tells us the nature of the solute, how the cell behave. Takes CaCk > - dissociates into 3 in water into account the nature of the particles in solution. Describes the behavior of a cell in a specific solution. Always describe the solution, not the cell. -  * 10009420 17 1000 my = =. 9 % NaCl -0. 9 gNaCI + 100 g H20 ↳ 100 m1 Ho ↳ - x 10 for 11 : 9) g NaCl + 100 0g H20 Simple calculation Gm = - OSM 0. 154mom154 dissociation IL M factora for X 0 154Mx 2. = 0 3080sM. more practical for ↳ Convert What’s the osmolarity of 0.9% Saline? to MOSMS clinical settings 0. 308ANxmOSM308mOT ENORMAL" SALINE 9g 1000g NaCl H2O =1000mL  What’s the osmolarity of 0.9% Saline (normal saline)? 9g NaCl + 1000g of water (1L) 9g/(23 + 35.4)g/mol = 0.154 mol 0.154mol/1L = 0.154M 0.154M x 2 = 0.308 OsM =~ 300mOsM  By definition... NORMAL SALINE Table 5.3 (6e)  Non-physiological illustration: 1. Add water to side A: Compartment A Compartment B Semi-permeable membrane  Non-physiological illustration: 1. Add water to side A: Loading… Compartment A Compartment B Semi-permeable membrane  Non-physiological illustration: 1. Add water to side A: result Compartment A Compartment B Semi-permeable membrane  Non-physiological illustration: 2. Add 6 penetrating particles (P) to side A: PPP PPP Compartment A Compartment B Semi-permeable membrane  Non-physiological illustration: 2. Add 6 penetrating particles (P) to side A: result ↳ until there is no [I gradient PPP PPP Compartment A Compartment B Semi-permeable membrane  Slightly different scenario: 1. Arbitrarily distribute some non-penetrating particles (N) in side A and B. how does the will go fro A-B until there's [] gradient volume distribute? no water > - Compartment A is B to compartment hypotonic swell! ↳ caused comp B to. PPP PPP NNNN NN FCF ICF ↓ * Compartment A Compartment B Semi-permeable membrane  Slightly different scenario: 2. Result NNNN PPP NN P P P Compartment A Compartment B Semi-permeable membrane  Slightly different scenario: 3. First, water move. NNNN NN Compartment A Compartment B Semi-permeable membrane  Slightly different scenario: 3. Then, penetrating particles move NNNN P P NN P P P P Compartment A Compartment B Semi-permeable membrane  Bottom line: At equilibrium, the distribution of water (volume) and of penetrating particles is determined by the distribution of non- penetrating , so that the concentrations of penetrating particles are equal across the membrane.  Penetrating solute (= Permeable solute) Solute can cross plasma membrane Equilibrium? Effect on volume in this case?  Non-penetrating solute (= Non-Permeable solute) Solute cannot cross plasma membrane Equilibrium? Effect on volume in this case? e  Types of particles... Non-penetrating completely non-penetration: eg. Protein (too big) Functionally non-penetrating: eg. NaCl Na channel can move Na into the cell, but when it goes in, it will be moved out Penetrating freely penetrating: eg. Urea Slowly or partially penetrating: eg. Glucose one it moves in, it will be phosphorylated ↳ eventually will enter cell Total Body Water & TBW: deuterium oxide D2O 13 Inulin: a complex carbohydrate: = ECF Evan’s Blue (binds the plasma protein) =Plasma  Plasma Osmosis Movement of H2O across selectively permeable membrane towards the area of higher solute concentration Diffusion of H2O across semipermeable membrane  Osmotic Pressure Pressure due to H2O movement across a semipermeable membrane – Difference in solute concentration across the membrane – Non-penetrating solutes “Pulling” pressure  Osmolarity ↳ particles in solution. Measures # particles of a solution # Particles/1 liter solution Osmoles (Osm) Milliosmoles (mOsm) Normal osmolarity of body fluids = 300 mOsm Range: 280-300 mOsm "isotonic"  Tonicity of a Solution ↳ affected by NP particles Measures the effect of a solution on cell no nucleus volume L dontuse mitosis days Possibilities? no live for -120  RBCs are simple... Shrink, Swell, crenate - hemolyse "burst"  What is water intoxication? ↳ Too many RBCs burst won't have enough RBCs to carry oxygen treated via dialysis > - Too high a price for a Wii A 28-year-old suburban Sacramento woman died of apparent “water intoxication” after participating in a contest — “Hold Your Wee for a Wii” — sponsored by a local radio station. The rules were simple: Participants competed to see how much water they could drink without going to the bathroom. The winner would receive a shiny new Wii video game console, the highly coveted, $250 must-have from Nintendo.  Osmosis Question: Should I drink sea water when I am thirsty or dying? seawater is hypertonic cell seawater is > - to ↓ 900 mOsM Loading… cell Shrink faster you're more die thirsty sooner  300 mOsM NP solutes 200 mOsM NaCl is the concentration Where ? Outside Solution is osmotic of particles higher hypo or inside ? and hypo tonic => to the cell > - water will move ind 3 the cell will swell until the [J inside the cell reaches 200mOsMc same as outside.  300 mOsM NP solutes 200 mOsM NaCl Solution is hypo osmotic and hypo tonic  300 mOsM NP solutes 400 mOsM urea Solution is hyper osmotic > - Outside has higher 52 than inside. and hypo tonic ↳ water will move there is no 2] in until gradient of NP particles. In this case outside has 0 NP particles , inside has 300.  300 mOsM NP solutes 400 mOsM urea the as Solution is hyper osmotic where and hypo tonic how the cell will behave Standard intravenous (IV) solutions Isotonic: Normal saline (0.9% NaCl) D-5-Normal saline (5% dextrose in normal saline) Hypotonic D-5-W (5% dextrose in water) ½ normal saline (0.45% NaCl) D-5- ½ normal saline  NS > - 308mOSM Np DsW > penetrating hypotonic - (50g glocose/12) 50y = = 0 0 Smol.. 278 osmol x dissociationit factor of (1) glucose /12 > - 0. 278 os M +100 0 = 278mOsM 1) NS > - 154mOsM hypotonic hypoosmotic 2 DSNS > - 584mOsM isotonic hyperosmotic DS - /NS-432mOsM hyperosmotic hypotonic Communication, Integration, and Homeostasis Function of the cell membrane Regulation of entrance and exit; structure support; compartment; communication Identify as short distance communication, long distance communication or either: Electrical signal Neurotransmitter Hormone Paracrine Chemical signal Gap junction  Terminology Associated With Receptors Target cells have receptors Receptors have ligands Loading… Receptors exhibit specificity, competition, saturation; subject to allosteric modulation Ligand/receptor has agonists & antagonists 7 ↑ triggers blocks Activity can be upregulated or response response downregulated ↳ ↳ ↓ productivity ↓ productivity Signals can be: Chemical or electrical Short distance or long distance Lipophilic or lipophobic 2 major classes of receptors based on type of ligand be in can cytosol ↓ or nucleus Intracellular and membrane receptor lipophilic lipophobic  Intracellular Loading… Cell Membrane · Intracellular Receptors Cytosolic or nuclear ↓ T3/T4 Bind steroid or thyroid hormones Act as transcription factors Cell membrane Receptors Are integral membrane proteins Bind peptide hormones & other lipophobic signals Usually activate a 2o messenger Lipid-Soluble Chemicals Intracellular Receptors Cytosolic or nuclear Bind steroid or thyroid hormones Act as transcription factors Cell membrane Receptors Are integral membrane proteins Bind peptide hormones & other lipophobic signals Usually activate a 2o messenger Four classes of membrane receptors: Overview of G-Proteins OFF: G-protein bound to GDP ON: G-protein bound to GTP OFF: G-protein bound to GDP 2o messengers... Transduce extracellular signal to intracellular signal signal transduction Common examples: cAMP, cGMP, IP3/DAG (Inositol triphosphate/diacyl glycerol), and Calcium Loading… Possible actions Trigger release of calcium from stores Open/close ion channels Modulate enzyme activity Water-soluble Messengers with G-protein-Coupled Receptor Effect: Secondary messenger system Chemical activates G-protein Activates Effector Protein in Membrane Activation of Secondary messenger Activates protein kinases within cell turns enzyme on or off  Animations cAMP http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iGb93jCKVXs Ability to communicate is critical for... Homeostasis “Various physiologic arrangements which serve to restore the normal state once it has been disturbed” Walter Cannon ~ 1930 Walter Cannon was ahead of his time… Cannon’s Postulates Role of autonomic nervous system in homeostasis Tonic activity Antagonistic control Effects of chemical signals based on receptors Apply these to cardiovascular for exam 2…. Homeostasis requires physiological control systems  Components of a Homeostatic Control Mechanism Describe ways body maintains homeostasis and what happens when these mechanisms fail ? 17 Figure 1.11 Components of a Homeostatic Mechanism Stimulus Set Point Sensor = Receptor Control Center = Integration Center Effectors Compensatory Response from effectors Result = Outcome Homeostatic responses can be localized or systemic Local control: Paracrine Systemic control: Nervous and Endocrine Systems Simple Neural Reflex: A tap to the knee activates mechanoreceptors, ultimately causing the quadriceps muscles to contract and the leg to kick.  Simple neural reflex B stimulus temp 1. receptor pain receptor. Afferent 2 sensory neuron 3. integrating Center spinal cord of central nervous system Motor neurons. Efferent 4 Skeletal S Effector muscle. muscle You Response move contraction your hand back. Simple Endocrine Reflex: Insulin is released from Beta cell in response to high plasma glucose. Insulin facilitates glucose uptake in adipose and muscle cells. & adipose Muscle cells O insulin binds w/ G-protein coupled receptor Targ glucose travels down its concentrationgradient whatnels does it travel through?  Simple Endocrine Reflex Stimulus [glucose] ↑ glucose receptors 1 receptor. diabetes I beta cells. integrating 2 no beta cells center insulin. efferent 3 Skeletal muscles (primary). effector 4 & adipose tissues (secondary issues between ↓ were are characteristic diabetes upregulation o response more GLUT1) , more entering cell glucose Eglucose]  Clinical View: Establishing Normal Ranges for Clinical Practice Normal ranges for homeostatic variables Body temperature 98.6ºF Blood glucose 80–110 mg/dL Blood pressure 90–120/60-80 mm Hg Determined by sampling healthy individuals in a population Normal range is value for 95% of individuals sampled 5% of healthy population have values outside normal range General components of reflex pathways: Feedback loops: epona To Positive Feedback homeostasis (only 3 examples) Negative Feedback (the rests) Smaintains homeostasis Fig. 6-23  in bothe Hood clotting > - of platelets Occurs Positive Feedback > - ↑ describe females going into labor cervix dilation to docm farget cells are milk glands 25 Figure 1.15  1.5c Systems Regulated by Positive Feedback Positive feedback during breastfeeding. Sensory detectors detect baby suckling. Message is transmitted to the hypothalamus. Hypothalamus signals posterior pituitary to release the hormone oxytocin. Oxytocin stimulates the mammary gland to eject breast milk. Cycle repeats as long as the baby suckles Other examples of positive feedback – Blood clotting cascade – Uterine contractions of labor 26 Neuroendocrine pathways are complex nicom blood EX ! sugars torching hot something and moving hand back Endocrine system Fig 7-2 Three Major Classes of Hormones: Steroid—made from cholesterol Peptide—synthesized by linking amino acids Amine—synthesized from either tyrosine or tryptophan> - can behave like steroids or peptides Sources of Steroid Hormones: " · releases cortisol , "L-dosterone RAAS ? (regulates sodium Primary ↑ androgen male hormone sex and blood pressure Adrenal Cortex located above Kidneys => Gonads => malea female hormon sex es also… Loading… Placenta abt for 9 mos ↳ only exists.. to baby blood supply ↳provides Most hormones are peptide hormones  ~ > - would diffuse Gactive transport out of reside > - cannot travel alone through ageous plasma Loading… Hormone Interactions: Synergism: effect of 2 or more hormones on same parameter is greater than additive. 1 + 1 > 2 e.g. testosterone and growth hormone Permissiveness: one hormone is needed for another to exert its full effect (first hormone has no direct effect on parameter) alloster- > likely occurs via on 1 + 1 = 1 e.g. Thyroid hormone and GH Antagonism: hormones have opposing effects 1 + 1 = 0 e.g. Insulin and Glucagon ↳ body will not release hormones these. simultaneously Hormones can be categorized by connection to the hypothalamus The hypothalamic-pituitary connection …  stimulus osmolarity ↑ Res. OSMO-R Int. hypothalamus cent. APH Efferent Effector Kidney water reabsorb Vesp. ↓ osmolarity The posterior pituitary: a neural connection to the hypothalamus Oxytocin & vasopressin (ADH) Loading…  facin OXY are andressin somones  6 grps · Of The anterior 3 cells endocrine pituitary: releasing earch a diff. normone vascular connection to the hypothalamus Portal System The “Master Gland” is a hodgepodge… Posterior pituitary Down-growth or extension of hypothalamus Neural tissue Releases neurohormones Anterior pituitary Outgrowth of roof of mouth True endocrine/glandular tissue Releases classic hormones The Hypothalamic-Anterior Pituitary Control Axis = all released by anterior pituitary Z puberty Pregnancy strelightLight o Greguiatetabolism ↳ steroid hormone Fig. 7.9  Stimulus frog recept 1 Photo-receptor. Aftl sensory neuron a 11 brain ↓ Efferent = Afferent 2 ↓ CRH (trophilone => functionsther hormones release) IC 2 Anteriorry gland 2 ↓ ACTH Efferent Afferent 3 d Adrenal cortex Il 3 N Efferent 3 cortisol Effector entire body & [Glucose] Response Negative feedback: a critical aspect of endocrine reflexes Endocrine Pathologies: Patterns of Pathologies Hyposecretion Hypersection Abnormal tissue responsiveness Diagnosis of origin of pathology 1o pathology—begins in the final endo gland in pathway 2o pathology— begins in tissue producing trophic hormone  ** hYPOT I ↑* Adrenal cortisol ↓ um cortex ~ treatable primary- secondary happens in does not happen final gland in final gland hormone steroid ↳ protein synthesis hormone peptide ↳ signal transduction post translation yadda gadala Endocrine Pathologies: Patterns of Pathologies Hyposecretion Hypersection Abnormal tissue responsiveness Diagnosis of origin of pathology 1o pathology—begins in the final endo gland in pathway 2o pathology— begins in tissue producing trophic hormone