Pharmacognosy PDF

# **Pharmacognosy** ## The Presence of Active Ingredients in the Plant - Active ingredients are found in different parts of the plant. - When extracted and separated from these different plant parts, they are used in many medical and pharmaceutical ingredients. - Active ingredients are found in the...

# **Pharmacognosy** ## The Presence of Active Ingredients in the Plant - Active ingredients are found in different parts of the plant. - When extracted and separated from these different plant parts, they are used in many medical and pharmaceutical ingredients. - Active ingredients are found in the following parts of the plant: 1. Leaves 2. Flowers 3. Seeds 4. Herb 5. Bark 6. Fruits 7. Wood 8. Underground parts ## Fill in the Blanks - **1. Senna** - Common name: Indian Senna or Alexandrian Senna. - Biological Source: Senna is the dried leaflets of _Cassia acutifolia_ (Alexandrain Senna or Egyptian senna) and _Cassia angustifolia_ (Indian Senna). - Family: Leguminosae - History: Senna was first used in European medicine as early as the 9th or 10th century by the Arabs whom introduced the drug to Egypt from Mecca. - Origin: Mecca, then cultivated in Egypt and India. - Morphology of Senna leaves: Perennial small shrubs (trees) about 1m to 1.5m high with yellow flowers. Fruits form legume (pods) bearing Paripinnate compound leaves (petiolated with leaflets are arranged on opposite sides of the rachis). - Colour: Greyish green; - Odor: Distinct bitter; - Shape: Ovate, Lanceolate - Taste: Mucilaginous ## MCQ - **Chemical Constituents**: Senna contains two anthraquinone types of glycosides: Sennosides A and Sennosides B. - **Uses**: Strong laxative (purgative) used in the case of acute or chronic constipation or when required, soft stool (abdominal operations, anal-rectal operation, hemorrhoids, x-ray for intestines). ## 2. Digitalis leaves - Common name: Purple foxglove - Biological Source: Dried leaves of _Digitalis purpurea_ and _Digitalis lanata_. - Family: Scrophulariaceae - History: Digitalis is an example of a cardio-active or cardio tonic drug. In other words, a steroid which has powerful action on the cardiac muscle in animals, and has been used in the treatment of heart conditions ever since its discovery in 1775. The discovery of digitalis is accredited to the Scottish doctor William Withering. - Origin: Southern and Central regions of Europe - Morphological characters: - The plant is biennial and rarely perennial. - Shape: Ovate or Lanceolate - Margin: Dentate - Venation of leaves: Anastomosing towards margins. - Arrangement of leaves: Alternate ## Chemical Constituents: - It contains glycosides namely: Purpurea glycoside A, Purpurea glycoside B, which upon hydrolysis give rise to digitoxin, gitoxin. - **Uses**: 1. Congestive heart failure (CHF). 2. Arrhythmia. ## 3. Henna - Common name: Egyptian privet, _Lawsonia alba_ - Biological Source: Henna consists of the dried leaves of the _Lawsonia inermis_. - Family: Lythraceae - Origin: Africa, southern Asia and northern Australia - Chemical constituents: A red orange dye molecule Lawsone (naphthaquinone) coloring substance. Other constituents are: gallic acid, tannins and sugars. - Chemical Test: Lawsone + KOH + HCL = Red Color - Uses: Natural hand & hair dyes, antifungal, tanning (astringant). - Used on brides for their weddings in India, the Middle East and Africa. - Social and holiday celebrations. - The "Night of the Henna" is the oldest and most famous henna celebration. Both men and women have a "Night of the Henna" just before their marriage. - Considered lucky for a bride and to make her beautiful; a blessing. ## 4. Coca Leaf - Common name: Coca - Biological source: Dried leaves of _Erythroxylon coca_. Family: Erythroxylaceae - Origin: South American counties like Peru and Bolivia. - Morphological characters: - Shape: Glabrous - Margin: Entire - Midrib: Prominent at lower surface. - Microscopical characters: T.S of Coca leaves upper epidermis containing Prism type of calcium oxalate crystals and the trichomes are absent in the both surfaces. - Chemicals constituents: - Main Alkaloids are: Cocaine and Cinnamyl cocaine. - Uses: Local anesthetic (eye and ear). ## 5. Solanaceaeous Family Leaves - Datura: - Common name: Thorn Apple - Occurrence: Dried leaves and flowering tops of various species of _Datura stramonium_: _Datura inoxia_, _Datura metel_, _Datura sanguinea_. - Origin: It is found in India, England and other tropical and subtropical regions. - Morphology: - Colour: Light olive brown - Margin: Dentate - Apex: Acuminate - Hyocyamus - Belladona ## 1. _Datura stramonium_ - Chemical constituents: - Hyoscyamine (Main) - Hyoscine - Atropine (less amount) - Uses: - Stimulant on CNS. - Depresses nerve endings on the secretory glands and smooth muscle. - In ophthalmic practice, decreases sweating and also used in asthma. ## 2. _Hyocymus niger_ - Common name: Henbane, Poison tobacco - Occurrence: Dried leaves and flowering tops of _Hyocymus niger_. - Allied drugs: _Hyocymus muticus_, _H. reticulus_ and _H. aureus_ - Chemical constitutes: - Hyoscyamine (main)-75% - Hyoscine - Atropine-(less) - Morphological characters: - Leaf: Sessile in nature - Margin: Irregularly dentate - Apex: Acute - Midrib: Broad midrib and flat - Shape of leaf: Oblong to ovate - Surface: Hairy surface - Touch: Resinous ## 3. _Atropa belladona_ - Common name: Deadly nightshade - In the USA the plant is known as Poison black cherry. - In the Germany the plant is known as Mad cherry. - Occurrence: Dried leaves and flowering tops of _Atropa belladona_. - The leaves are richest in alkaloids. It contain 0.3% alkaloids calculated as hyoscyamine. - Chemical constituents: - Hyoscyamine (Main) - Hyoscine (less amount) - Atropine (Main) - Uses: Parasympathetic and anticholinergic properties. - It is used as antidote of opium and chloral hydrate poisoning. ## 6. Eucalyptus leaves - Occurrence: Fresh leaves of _Eucalyptus globulus_. Family: Myrtaceae. - The Eucalyptus tree possesses two kinds of leaves: - Sessile: Young plant bears Sessile and cordate leaves - Petiolated: Mature plants constitute official drugs and bears petiolated and ovate lanceolate shaped leaves - Chemical constituents: Cineol and Eucalyptol. - Uses: - Treatment of nasopharyngeal infection - For treating cough and as a decongestant ## The Bark - The bark is the outermost protective layer of the stem. - The bark is composed of different tissues which continuous from the root system to the branches of the tree. ## Cinnamon Bark - Common name: Dalchini, Cortec cinnamomi. - Biological source: Dried inner bark of _Cinnamomum zeylinicum_. Family: Lauraceae - Origin: It is considered to be native to Sri Lanka and Malabar coast of India. It is also cultivated in Jamaica, Brazil and Indonesia. - The Cinnamon tree is a small evergreen tree about nine meters in height. The bark is collected usually from six years old plant. - Cinnamon bark (compound double quill): - Smooth - Splintery - Pericyclic fibres - Outer surface - Inner surface - Finely striated - Chemical constituents: Cinnamaldehyde (60-70%), eugenol (5-10%). - Uses: Flavoring agents, carminative and in various dental preparations. - It is used as spice, condiment and also in the preparation of candy and perfumes. ## Cinchona bark - Common name: Peruvian bark, Jesuit’s bark - Biological source: Dried stem and root bark of _Cinchona calisaya_, _C. officinale_, _C. succirubra_ and _C. ledgeriana_. - Family: Rubiaceae - Origin: It is indigenous to South Africa and cultivated in India, Bolivia, Columbia, Peru, Indonesia, and Sri Lanka. - Plants are tropical shrubs or trees. Barks is collected in rainy season from 6-9 years old plants. - Chemical constituents: Quinine, Quinidine, Cinchonin and Cinchonidin. - Chemical tests:- - Bark powder in a test tube + glacial acetic acid = Reddish fume on the upper sides of test tubes. - Bark powder + Conc. Sulphuric acid = Produces blue fluorescence under UV lights. - Thalaquin test (Specific test):- Bark powder + Bromine water + dilute ammonia solution = produces emerald green colour. - Uses: In Treatment of malaria and Cardiac arrhythmias. ## Frangula bark - Common name: _Frangula alnus_ - Biological Source: Dried bark of _Rhamnus frangula_. Family: Rhamnaceae. - Origin: It is native to Europe, northernmost Africa, western Asia, Ireland and Great Britain. - Morphological characters: - Shape: Curved or channeled. - Outer surfaces rough and covered with silvery grey patches of lichen. - Inner surface yellow to reddish brown. - Striation like fracture in outer surface. - Slight characteristic odorless with bitter taste. - Chemical constituents: Anthraquinone glycoside: Frangulin - Uses: purgative and laxative. ## Cascara Bark - Common name: Sagrada, Sacred Bark - Biological source: Dried stem bark of _Rhamnus pursianus_. It is collected at least one year before being used medicinally. - Family: Rhamnaceae. - Origin: Cultivated in North California, in the state of Washington and Oregon, and also in Kenya. - Morphological characters: - Shape: Quills or channeled. - Outer surfaces smooth and covered with silvery grey patches of lichen and elongated whitish lenticels. - Inner surface yellow to reddish brown and some black colour after dried. - Striation like fracture in outer surface. - Slight characteristic odorless with nouseously bitter taste. - Microscopical characters: - Cork consists of numerous layers of small, thin-walled, fattened cells. - The cortex is composed of flattened collenchyma and cellulosic parenchyma. Some of them containing clusters of the calcium oxalate, or starch. - Thick-walled sclereids or stone cells are also present. - Chemical constituents: Anthraquinone glycosides and Cascarosides. - Uses: Cascara is used as a laxative; bitter tonic in small doses. ## Quillia Bark - Common name: Soap bark, Panama wood - Biological source: Dried inner bark of _Quillaza saponaria_. - Family: Rosaceae. - Origin: It is indigenous to south America, especially Chili and Peru. It is known as Soap Bark. - Morphological characters: - Shape: Flat pieces. - The outer surface is pale-brown or yellowish white. It is longitudinally striated. - The inner surface is white or yellowish white, smooth and very hard.. - Striation like fracture in outer surface. - Odorless with acrid unpleasant taste. - Chemical constituents: It contain 10% of saponin known as Quiillaic acid. - Uses: As an emulsifying agent for external preparation containing tars and volatile oils. ## 3- The Wood - The wood consists of the secondary tissues produced by the vascular cambium on its inner surface (xylem tissues). - Cross section of the trunk of a tree - Bark - Vascular cambium - Sapwood - Heartwood - Pith ## The Wood - Sapwood: - The outer, new wood lighter in color, composed from the outer wood where the cells still reserve food as starch and have normal functions as conductive and support. - Heartwood: - The inner darker part. It is dead and no more functioning in water transport. The cells of the old wood become colored and filled with resins, tannins and colored matters. ## 1. Quassia wood: Jamaica quassia - Biological source: Dried stem wood of the _Picrasma excelsa_. Family: Simarubaceae. - Origin: The tree 15-20m high growing in Jamaica. - Macroscopical characterizations: - Shape: Rasping or chips up to 30cm in diameter. - Colour: It is first whitish but becomes yellow on exposure, shows blackish marking due to presence of fungus. - Odour: odorless - Taste: very bitter - Chemical constituents: Quassin, neoquassin, isoquassin, 18 hydroxyl quassin. - Uses: as bitter tonic & insecticide. ## 2. Sandalwood - Biological source: It is the heartwood of _Santalum album_. - Family: Santalaceae. - Origin: Evergreen tree 8-12m in highest distributed in India and Malaysia. - Microscopical characters: - Colour: Pale yellow - Odour: Characteristic - Taste: Unpleasant - Chemical constituents: It contain two sesquiterpenes a- Santalol and ẞ-Santalol. - Uses: - Sandal wood oil is used in the symptomatic treatment of dysuria. - It is mainly used as a perfumes in preparation of cosmetics and incense sticks. ## A Transverse Section in the Trunk of an Old Stem 1. **The outer bark (cork)**: protects the tree from extreme temperatures, bad weather, insects and fungi. 2. **The Inner bark (2ry phloem)**: conveys the food-bearing sap developed in the leaves down to the various parts of the tree. 3. **The cambium**: is a thin layer of cells, which produce phloem on one side and xylem (sapwood) on the other. 4. **Sapwood**: is the living wood in the tree through which the raw sap rises from the roots to the leaves. 5. **The heartwood**: consists of old cells. This is the dead part of the tree that nevertheless provides structural strength. 6. **The pith**: is the central core of the tree (missing in many species). ## **4- The Flower** - **Definition**: It is morphologically a compresses determinate fertile shoot crowded with modified leaves (floral leaves) specialized to carry on reproduction. - Stamen - Anther (contains pollen) - Filament (holds the anther) - Petal - Calyx - Sepal (small leaves under the flower) - Peduncle - Stigma (receives the pollen during fertilization) - Style (tube on top of the ovary) - Ovary (female reproductive organ) - Ovule (reproductive cells which will become the seed when fertilized by pollen) - Carpel (Pistil) ## The Flower Anatomy - **Outer parts or the non-reproductive organs**: - Pedicle - Receptacle - Calyx - Corolla - Androecium - **Inner parts or the reproductive parts**: - Gynoecium - **Whorls**: is the floral leaves arrangement - **N.B. flower can be complete or incomplete** (missing one or more of this components) ## Clove - Synonyme(s): Laung, Clove bud, Caryophylli. - Biological source: Clove consists of dried ripe fruit bud of _Eugenia caryophyllus_. - Family: Myrtaceae - Morphology of Clove: - The plant is perennial tree (15) m in heights. - The buds are collected when they changed color from green to crimson red (reddish brown) and dried carefully. - The buds are 15-20 mm long and 2-3 mm in diameter. - Corolla- dome shaped with yellow, imbricate membranous petals. - Calyx-4 thick walled spreading sepals. - Hypanthium- Sub cylindrical, slightly flattened and tapering end. - Taste: pungent & aromatic. Odour: aromatic - Chemical Constituents: Eugenol 70%-90%, Caryophyllene, d-Acetyl eugenol 4% - Uses: Condiment, Carminative. - Antiseptic. - Dental uses: as filling material with ZnO and Local anesthetic (dental analgesic). - Adulteration of clove: - Expanded flower: in which both corolla & stamens have usually been broken off. - Exhausted clove: all of its oil have been removed by distillation, lighter than water. - Clove stalk: stems which hold clove buds, full of prisms of ca-ox and pseudo crystal sheath. ## German Chamomile - Biological source: It is consist of dried expanded flower heads of _Matricaria chamomilla_. - Family: Asteraceae - Origin: It is found all over Europe and western Asia, and it has been widely introduced in North America and Australia. - Morphology: - The dried, terminal flower heads, are 10-20 mm in diameter - Prominent yellow disk flowers and silver-white ray flowers. - Flowering: It flowers in June and July. - Microscopical characters: - Epidermis of polygonal cells, straight wall. - Stomata: Anomocytic stomata. - Trichomes: Glandular & non glandular trichomes. - Ca-oxalate crystals: few cluster of calcium oxalate. - Active constituents: - Essential oil of deep blue color due to azuline, chamazulene - Flavonoid epigenine - Glycosides - Tannins - Uses: - Internally carminative, antispasmodic, tranquilizer and antiseptic. - Locally as anti-inflammatory creams for sun burns and diaper rashes. ## Pyrethrum - Common name: Persian insect flower - Biological source: It is consist of dried expanded flower headsof _Chrysanthenum cinerariifolium_. - Family: Asteraceae - Active constituents: a) Pyrethrin b) Cinerin c) Jasmolin d) Chysanthemic acid - Uses: insecticidal and for scabies. It causes abortion.