Philosophy Study Guide PDF

**Socrates** 1. What type of argumentation does Aristotle say Socrates was especially interested in? Inductive 2. Supposing that Socrates was interested in universal definitions, what aspect of reality was he most interested in defining? Moral behavior and excellence of character 3....

**Socrates** 1. What type of argumentation does Aristotle say Socrates was especially interested in? Inductive 2. Supposing that Socrates was interested in universal definitions, what aspect of reality was he most interested in defining? Moral behavior and excellence of character 3. What is the difference between Socrates and Plato according to Aristotle? Socrates thought that the universals and definitions did not exist apart. Plato thought that they did exist apart. 4. How does Socrates compare money, honor, reputation, knowledge, and virtue as various possible goods for human beings? Virtue helps you get these, not the other way around 5. What does Socrates mean by obeying God? He is acting because of what the oracle at Delphi said, and he follows his own "oracle", his conscience. 6. How does Socrates compare avoiding death versus avoiding doing an unjust deed? What is the primary thing to consider when one must act? Taking care of the soul 7. In what way is the fear of death a pretense of wisdom? Because you appear to know the unknown, but you don't 8. Which is the faster runner: death or unrighteousness? What does that mean? Unrighteousness. He means that it is easier to avoid death than unrighteousness, because the common methods of fleeing death, like abandoning one's post or putting on a disgraceful show of pleading, are unrighteous. 9. What does Socrates mean by the oracle within him? Soul/conscience 10. What mistake does Socrates' interlocutor initially make in his attempt to define courage? He only talks about soldiers and war, not other ways people can have courage. 11. How close do they come to a definition by the end of the dialogue? They say: "courage is the knowledge of the grounds of hope and fear." a. Is courage distinguished from cowardice? b. Is courage distinguished from boldness and rashness or identified with them? Courage is not the same as boldness or rashness because that is acting contrary to proper knowledge of hope and fear by facing danger too much instead of too little. c. Is courage distinguished from fearlessness or identified with it? Courage is not the same as fearlessness because courage is about properly dealing with fear, which you cannot do if you never feel fear. d. Is courage identified with some form of knowledge? If so, with knowledge of what? The knowledge of the grounds of hope and fear 12. Summarize Socrates' argument in the Crito which concludes that it would be wrong for Socrates to attempt to escape from prison. If attempted to escape from prison, he would be undermining the laws, which would create chaos, which would be bad for the state. Since he does not want to harm the state, he won't escape from prison. 13. How does Socrates compare suffering evil versus doing evil? Which harms us more? Doing evil 14. Is Socrates a victim of laws or men? What difference does it make? A victim of men. It makes a big difference because if he were the victim of laws it would mean the laws were unjust and he wouldn't have to obey them. 15. How does Socrates compare one's country to one's parents and ancestors? It begat and educated him like, like his parents. 16. Does Socrates think that contending against desires and pleasures is an example of courage or temperance? Courage **Plato** 17. What are the four parts of the divided line as regards a) objects of recognition, and b) modes of cognition, and how do they correspond to one another? Copies, bodies, mathematical objects, Forms. Forms and mathematical objects are in the intelligible realms, and copies and bodies are in the visible realm. 18. Can you explain the difference between the two ways the intellect functions in the two parts of the intelligible realm? Is one like induction and one like deduction? Understanding/mathematical reasoning is like deduction because you start with assumptions and reason deductively downwards from the less to the more complex. Reason/Forms/Essences is like induction because you move upwards to more universal and simpler forms. 19. In the Timaeus, is Plato arguing from the nature of our mental powers to the nature of reality, or vice versa? He argues from the nature of reality to the nature of our mental powers. 20. What three natures of kinds of things (types of reality) does Plato distinguish in the Timaeus? If we add god and souls, would that be a fourth type of reality and nature? Forms, reason, and bodies 21. Why should knowledge, as opposed to opinion, correspond to unchanging being? Why should opinion correspond to changing being? Because knowledge is unchanging, but opinion changes 22. Are Forms and space both eternal and uncreated? Yes 23. How do we grasp space as a reality? How is it related to material things? How real is space? We apprehend space with the help of our senses. It provides a home for material things. It's not very real. 24. What are the different items in the hierarchy of beauty? Beauty of one individual being---beauty common to many material beings---beauty of mind---beauty of institutions and laws---beauty of sciences---Form of Beauty 25. Why must there be a Beauty itself? What is the implied argument? Because the beauty of all other things participates in this Beauty. Without absolute Beauty, we couldn't know what beauty is because there wouldn't be anything to compare it to. 26. Suppose that Beauty itself is the last step in the process of induction. As the last step, how is it related to the preceding steps in the process of induction? Which of the four causes is it? the preceding steps would be examples of beauty, which would point to Beauty itself. Final cause 27. What is the relation between the material sun and the immaterial form/idea of the Good? They both rule over their respective realms 28. How is the soul like the eye? The sun enables our eyes to see with the ability it already has, and goodness does the same to our soul. 29. How is the form of Good related to the power of knowing and to the truth of what is known? The Good is the author of knowledge 30. What are the four different causes of the universe according to Plato? Which cause does he regard as the highest, if only we could discover it? Which is second best? Material, external formal, efficient, final. Final. External formal. 31. Why is the receptacle or nurse of all generation difficult to grasp and dimly seen? Because space is not actually real. 32. How are three types of being in reality likened to father, mother, and child? Forms: father. Space: mother. Bodies: child. 33. Why must ideas/forms exist in themselves? Because they're the highest forms of being 34. What is the nature of Forms? They're like blueprints 35. What is the nature of material things? Changing, perceived by the senses, created, always in motion 36. What is the nature of pure space? Immaterial, uncreated, unchanging, eternal 37. Why must material things exist in space? They need something to receive them as copies so they can exist apart from the Forms. 38. What exactly did god create, according to Plato, and what did he not create but presuppose as already existing? God is the efficient cause of Forms being in space. The Forms already exist, so he presupposes them onto material things in space. 39. What three parts of the soul does Plato distinguish? Rational (intellect), spirited (irascible appetite), and desiring (concupiscible appetite) 40. In the Republic, are the three parts divisions of one soul, two souls, or is each a separate soul? Two souls (intellect in one and spirited and desiring appetites in another) Pretty sure that's what he changes to later, and in the Republic there's only one. 41. At the end of his career, in the Timaeus, how many souls does Plato say human beings have? Are all of them immortal or is only one immortal? Two. 1 is immortal (the intellect). 42. What important part of the soul does Plato fail to distinguish? the will 43. Does Plato succeed in proving that learning is recollection and recovery rather than discovery and the production of new knowledge for the first time? Yes? Yes 44. Is it true that the slave boy has never been taught any geometry? Could Socrates be teaching him a theorem by the order in which he asks the boy questions? No. Yes. 45. Does asking questions automatically awaken pre-existing knowledge, or could it instead be a way to introduce new knowledge? It could be a way to introduce new knowledge. 46. Does Plato clearly eliminate one of the two possibilities? He eliminates the possibility that it could be a way to introduce new knowledge. 47. Do the senses help or hinder us in our search for knowledge according to Plato? They hinder because they're inaccurate 48. Is there a world of immaterial Forms? Could we apprehend them with our bodily senses? Yes; no 49. What is the source of wars and fighting, according to Plato? Body and lusts of the body 50. In what does the purification of the mind consist? Separation of soul from body 51. What are true philosophers concerned to do? Contemplate the world of Forms 52. Is the union of soul and body natural according to Plato? No 53. Is Plato in favor of suicide? No **Plato's First Argument for the Immortality of the Soul** 54. What is the inductive argument Plato uses to establish the universal proposition that "all things with opposites are generated out of their opposites"? Death comes from life and they are opposites? 55. If Plato's major premise is: "whatever comes to be comes to be from its opposite," and the conclusion is that "the living come from the dead," what three statements should we fill in to make Plato's argument as clear and as complete as possible? Life and death are opposites. So life comes from death as death from life. Either death is separate existence of body and soul or a lack of organization of a potentially living body. 56. What enables Plato to argue that after death our souls must exist in another place? Because if learning is recollection our souls must have preexisted our bodies and therefore would still exist after our bodies die. 57. What is Plato's second argument to show that the living must come from the dead? **Plato's Second Argument for the Immortality of the Soul** 58. What is the argument, taken from the answering of questions, that learning is recollection? We are recollecting what we already know from our souls having been in the world of Forms. 59. In the second argument that learning is recollection, we begin with the fact that we have abstract knowledge. The question is what is its source? How does Plato argue? The senses are the source. For example, we can know equality through two things being equal to two other things. 60. Can we agree with Plato that from stones and sticks that appear equal we acquire our idea of equality somehow? Yes 61. Can we agree with Plato that the concrete equality of two sticks or two stones is not the same as abstract and absolute equality? Yes 62. Can we agree with Plato that the equality of two sticks or stones is aiming at but falling short of absolute equality, since two sticks or stones can appear equal to one but not to another person while absolute equality can never appear to be inequality; or does such a comparison even make sense? We don't agree with him 63. Plato seems to assume that our acquiring our idea of perfect equality from two equal sticks is really a case of our recollecting our direct perception of perfect equality in another existence. Is there another way to explain how we acquire our idea of abstract equality? Is it possible that, on the basis of our sensible experience of two sticks that appear equal, we intellectually grasp the abstract concept of equality? Would it really matter that the sticks were not as perfectly equal as they appear to be? Yes, that's possible. No, it doesn't matter. 64. Does the existence of the world of Forms go hand in hand with the soul pre-existing the body, according to Plato? Yes **Plato's Third Argument for the Immortality of the Soul** 65. What kind of thing can be dispersed and what kind of thing cannot? Compounds/composites can be dispersed and uncompounded things cannot be dispersed 66. Are Forms, such as Beauty itself, changeable or not? Are beautiful things changeable? No; yes 67. Is what is changeable visible and are unchanging Ideas not visible? Yes 68. What are the two sorts of existences that Plato distinguishes? Seen and unseen 69. How do the body and the soul correspond to the two sorts of existences on the basis of being seen and unseen? Body=seen; soul=unseen 70. Either the soul uses the body to perceive or turns from the body in order to reflect. How does the changeableness of the soul vary in the two cases? 71. Concerning soul and body, which governs and which is governed? Which of the two functions is most akin to what is divine and unchanging? The soul governs, and the body is governed. Governing is most akin to what is divine and unchanging. 72. How is philosophy related to death according to Plato? What does it mean? 73. What seems to be the cause of ghosts, according to Plato? Souls that voluntarily attach themselves to bodies 74. If the soul of a bad person can go into the body of an animal in the next life, and perhaps return to a human body in the future, what does this say about how body and soul are related, according to Plato? Do they naturally form on substantial being or do they interact as if they were two separate beings? Is the person simply the soul or is the person the soul-body composite? The soul is housed in the body but not attached to it. They interact as if they're two separate beings. The person is the soul-body composite. 75. What kind of person can reach the gods after death? Philosophers 76. Does the union of body and soul seem to be a good or a bad thing? Bad 77. Does Plato seem to think that there can be no doubts about the course the argumentation so far? Yes **Plato Continued** 78. What is the conclusion to Simmias's argument, which compares the soul to the harmony of a musical instrument? If the analogy is correct, then the soul perishes before the body decays. 79. Does defining the soul as the harmony of the body conflict with the doctrine that learning is recollection? Why? Yes because the harmony cannot precede the musical instrument, so recollection cannot precede the body. 80. Does the harmony of a musical instrument admit of degrees? Does the answer conflict with our understanding of the nature of soul? Yes. Yes. 81. If the soul is the harmony of the body, then, in terms of harmonies, how would we understand a good soul and a bad soul? If the soul is a harmony, must all souls be good souls? Why? A good soul is a harmonious harmony, and a bad soul is a disharmonious harmony. Yes because harmony is good. 82. Does the soul as a harmony agree with the soul as being able to act against the body, at least in humans? Does Plato have a good point here? No? The soul can act against the body, so it's not a harmony. 83. What makes one a true philosopher? Lovers of the vision of truth 84. How is this life like a dream, according to Plato? We don't know absolute beauty 85. How is the mind related to the soul according to Plato? The mind is the pilot of the soul because it's in charge of what you do. 86. Do all souls separated from their bodies enjoy an equal vision of the true being of the Forms? Which souls would enjoy the best vision? Some souls gain a clearer vision than others, and some gain no vision of the Forms. Philosophers. 87. Plato seems to assume that a soul can enter any kind of body. This being the case, what is required for a separated soul to acquire a specifically human body, according to Plato? It must have seen the world of Forms. 88. What is the nature of wisdom in practical matters, according to Plato? Where in Plato's state is it to be found? It advises, not about any particular thing in the state, but about the whole, and considers how aa state can best deal with itself and with other states. It's found among the guardians. It's in the intellect. 89. What is the nature of courage according to Plato? Where in Plato's state is it to be found? The universal saving power of true opinion in conformity with law about real and false dangers. It's found in the soldiers. It's in the irascible appetite as subordinate to reason. 90. What is temperance, according to Plato? Where, in either individual or state, is it to be found? It's the ordering and controlling of certain pleasures and desires. It's found in rulers and subjects. It's in the concupiscible appetite as subordinate to reason. 91. Why is temperance to be found in more than one power or class of persons, while courage is only found in one? Because temperance extends to the whole and runs through all the notes of the scale and produces a harmony of the weaker and the stronger and the middle class. 92. Which of the four virtues does Plato regard as least obvious, so that we must discover it be elimination? Justice 93. In what way does justice presuppose the other three virtues? How is it their cause and preservative? It is the only virtue which remains in the state when the other virtues are abstracted. Justice is the ultimate cause and condition of the existence of all of them and while remaining in the virtues is also their preservative. 94. What is the nature of justice according to Plato? When each part of the soul or state minds its own business. It's in the will as subordinate to the intellect. 95. Where is justice to be found in either individual or in Plato's state? In the will of the rulers following their intellects. It's in the will as subordinate to intellect. 96. How similar to Plato's notion or definition of justice is the generally accepted on that justice is rendering to others what is owing to them? Fairly similar **Aristotle** 97. What are the various senses of being? Forms of essential beings, being in act or being in potency, being true or false, accidental being 98. Of the different senses, which is independent of the others, and which are dependent? Which is the most basic sense of being, on which the others depend in order to have being? Forms of essential beings are independent of the others. Substance. 99. Which is the more substantial reality: a material being or an immaterial being? Immaterial being 100. Does Aristotle seem to recognize the validity of the question: "Why do things exist, rather than not?" or does he take the existence of things for granted? He takes the existence of things for granted 101. Is Aristotle's main concern why existing things are what they are, either substantially or accidentally, rather than why things exist rather than not? Yes 102. What is Aristotle trying to explain: why things exist or why the universe has always been in motion? Why the universe has always been in motion 103. If the material universe is changeable or moveable, then it is a combination of being in potency and being in act. If being in potency depends on being in act, then what kind of substance must Aristotle's eternal unmovable substance be? Pure actuality 104. What type of cause is the cause of the universe according to Aristotle? Final 105. What sense of final cause cannot belong to the cause of the universe? Some being for whose good an action is done 106. What is about the universe that Aristotle's prime mover is the cause of? Motion 107. In what does God's life consist? Contemplation 108. How does thought think of itself? It share in the nature of the object of thought. 109. What does God think of? What is most divine and precious and doesn't change 110. Can you figure out how we humans are both like and unlike God in the way that we are able to intellectually think of ourselves as thinking beings? 111. Is matter identical with potency and is form identical with actuality, or are potency and act more abstract and general terms than are matter and form? Potency and act are more abstract and general terms than matter and form. 112. Why does Aristotle want us to grasp potency and act by analogy and by induction and not to look for an exact definition of them? Are some aspects of reality too abstract and general for us to be able to define them? Because there are more general aspects of reality of which they're specific parts. Yes 113. Are matter and form defined in terms of potency and act or is it the other way around? Matter and form are defined in terms of potency and act 114. Are knowledge and the exercise of knowledge gives as two types of form or two types of actuality? Two types of actuality 115. What is it that is substantial about an artifact such as a table? Is the matter of which it is made, the shape which makes it a table, or the compound of the two? Can a shape be substantial if it is only an accidental form? The matter of which it is made. No 116. What is it that is substantial about an angel: matter, form, or the composite of the two? Form 117. What is it that is substantial about a dog: matter, form, or the composite of the two? composite of the two 118. Can you give other examples of the two senses or grades of actuality distinguished by Aristotle? 1^st^ grade of actuality (possessing knowledge): knowing Latin. 2^nd^ grade of actuality (activity of knowledge): speaking and writing in Latin 119. What seems to be meant by "nature"? the principle of motion (or change) and of being at rest in a thing 120. Is there any connection between nature and substance? How does the nature of a dog, or any natural substance, differ from that of a bed, or any artificial substance? Yes. Nature of a dog=matter + form. Nature of bed=matter 121. What does the example of the bed that was planted tell us about the nature of artificial substances? Their substance is matter 122. What is the definition of "nature"? the substantial form of a thing 123. Why does Aristotle investigate nature before motion and motion before place and time? Because we need to understand those terms before we can understand what comes after them 124. Aristotle says that there are as many types of motion or change as there are meanings of the word "is," yet he only singles out four categories of being when he explains the types of motion or change. Which four does he single out? Alteration, increase and decrease, coming to be and passing away, locomotion 125. What is the definition of motion, and can you give an example of change? Halfway between potency and act. Travelling from Front Royal to Manassas: while you're travelling, you're in motion and therefore changing. 126. What is Aristotle thinking of when he says the underlying nature is an object of scientific knowledge by analogy? 127. How many principles are needed to explain change? Why are the two contraries not enough by themselves? If all we think of are the contraries can we make sense of what is losing one contrary and gaining the other? Three. Because you also need one substratum. No. 128. What are the three principles needed to make sense of change in the material world? Matter, form, and the privation of form 129. What is the most general way of saying what the contraries are? Form and privation of form 130. What are the four causes outlined by Aristotle? Give an example of each. Material: that out of which a thing comes to be and which persists. Formal: the form or the archetype, i.e. the statement of the essence and its genera. Efficient: the primary source of the change or coming to rest. Final: that for the sake of which a thing is done. 131. Must particular causes and effects that are actually at work exist at the same time as each other or not? What distinction needs to be made to give a clear distinction? Yes. 132. What three senses of substance does Aristotle distinguish? What kind of substance is a living body? What kind of substance is a soul? Matter, form, and the composite of the two. Composite of the two. Form. 133. What are the two senses of actuality Aristotle distinguishes? What type of actuality is the soul? Possession of knowledge and exercise of knowledge. Possession of knowledge. 134. What does Aristotle mean by an organized body? Does it have to do with organs? What is an organ? One with distinguishable specialized instrumental parts. Yes. Separate parts of the body. 135. What is Aristotle's final definition of a soul, which applies to all living things? The substantial form of an organic body. 136. What is another way of describing the body of a living thing (in terms of specific powers)? Organized/organic 137. In what way is the body of a living thing potentially alive? Because it's able to support the soul united to it 138. Why would the soul be generally inseparable from body? Because by nature it's the actuality of the body 139. What senses of living or being alive does Aristotle distinguish? thinking, perception, local movement, rest 140. What is the most basic activity of living things? Self-nutrition 141. What basic activity makes a living thing an animal? Sensation 142. What is the primary form of sensation? Touch 143. How does the soul seem to be related to its powers of acting? Is it made up of them or is it their source? It's the source of the powers of acting 144. Is mind characterized both as a part of soul and as a kind of body? No, it's a different kind of soul 145. What are the kinds of powers of the soul? Nutritive, appetitive, sensory, locomotive, and powers of thinking 146. What other type of power must accompany the sensory powers? Appetitive 147. Which irrational element in the soul is said to share in the rational power? Which does not? Appetitive. Vegetative 148. Which irrational part of the soul can resist and oppose the rational power? The sense appetites 149. Does it seem reasonable to assume that how the intellect works is similar to how the senses work? Yes? No? Because our senses receive input about the physical world and our intellect is immaterial and cannot be affected by the material world. 150. Why would Aristotle say that actual knowledge is identical with its object? Because all things that come into being arise from what naturally is 151. When Aristotle writes that movement is an activity of what is imperfect while knowing is an activity of what has ben perfected, what does he mean? Movement involves acquiring a form, so the thing acquiring the form is imperfect, while an act of knowing presupposes the knower has the whole of the form (perfect) which the act of knowing depends on. 152. In what ways are we, by means of sensation and intellectual knowing, identical with sensible and intellectually knowable objects? Once we've received a sensible or intelligible form into ourselves, we've become the object. **[BEGINNING OF MATERIAL SINCE THE LAST EXAM:]** **Aristotle's First Argument for the Immateriality of the Intellect** 153. Suppose the major premise of Aristotle's argument is: "Whatever can receive the forms of material things into itself without distorting them must lack the forms it is to receive." Can you complete the argument? Thus, the soul is immaterial because if it were material, it couldn't receive material forms. **Aristotle's Second Argument for the Immateriality of the Intellect** 154. How do you formulate the second argument for the immateriality of the intellect? If the intellect can't be adversely affected by its objects, it must be immaterial. 155. What are the three degrees of passivity and how are degrees of passivity involved in the argument? 1: one in which a thing is acted on and loses nothing in the process. 2: one in which a things is acted on and loses something bad in the process. 3: one in which a thing is acted on and loses something good for it in the process. The intellect must not exist in an organ because it can't be acted on in a way contrary to its nature so that it suffers. **Aristotle's Third Argument for the Immateriality of the Intellect** 156. Why must the human intellect be immaterial according to the third argument? If the intellect cannot be adversely affected by its objects, it must be immaterial. 157. What two things is Aristotle distinguishing between when he writes: "we can distinguish between a spatial magnitude and what it is to be such"? The particular and the universal, respectively. **Aristotle continued** 158. Why do we need another intellectual power which is productive in the sense of being able to actualize the intellect as potential? 159. Why should we not be able to use our intellectual knowledge to know the material things in the world about us after death? Because the mind is impassible, the mind as passive is destructible, and without it, nothing thinks 160. What does Aristotle mean by mind as passive? "Passive intellect" refers to interior sense powers (especially the imagination or memory) which are passive tools or instruments of our intellect. 161. Why might Aristotle be concerned to defend common opinions about reality? Because if reality gives itself to us via our senses, then if most people think something is true about reality, we should suspect it's true. 162. What is the alternative to thinking that the objects of intellectual thought are in sensible material things? That we bring intellectual knowledge into the world with us, and seeing these things in the world jogs our memory (Plato) 163. Why do we need the senses to gain and to use intellectual knowledge? Because we only come to know material things by sensing them. 164. Can the intelligible aspects of material things act directly on our intellects, or must they go through the senses first? They must go through the senses first 165. Are the definitions and axioms in Euclid's Geometry like first principles? Yes 166. Why would there be a distinction between what is most knowable by nature and most knowable to us? Because we don't fully know things at first; our initial knowledge of what things are is confused and general 167. What does it mean to say we must go from generalities to particulars in our learning? We must start with more general concepts, like animals, before moving to particulars, like types of animals. 168. What two senses of potentially knowing would correspond to the two senses of knowing actually we already considered? Being able to have knowledge and actively considering knowledge 169. Why does the mind know itself when it knows anything else? Because once the agent intellect imposes the intelligible likeness/form on the possible intellect, the possible intellect is actualized by the intelligible form. The intellect is then present to itself as actual and intelligible. 170. How are sciences or bodies of knowledge distinguished by their ends? Knowing for the sake of knowing (speculative) vs. knowing for the sake of acting in a certain way (practical) 171. What do you think Aristotle means by deliberate desire? 172. What is the good state of the theoretical intellect? Of the practical? Theoretical: truth. Practical: truth in agreement with right desire 173. What is the origin of human action? Choice 174. What goal do speculative and practical intellects share in common? Truth 175. What distinguishes the three types of theoretical philosophies from each other? Its objects are immovable or separable from matter; they're progressively more abstract. 176. What two definitions of "good" can you find in the text? That which is sought after and the perfect or complete in being. 177. What type of cause is the good of a thing presented as, especially in the first definition of good? Final 178. Is it by an inductive or deductive movement of the mind that goodness is discovered as the function of a thing? Inductive 179. Is the good of a thing presented as if it were an end or a means to an end? An end 180. Suppose that the good of a thing is its functioning well, which of the ten categories does functioning well fall into? Acting 181. Why is the argument that man as such has a function an inductive argument? Because it moves from general principles (eye, hand, and foot have functions) to a more basic conclusion (thus man has functions). 182. What is the function of man according to Aristotle? 183. Which is more properly the function of man: being virtuous or acting in accord with virtue? Acting in accord with virtue 184. What are the three types of life? Which is adopted by most men? How is it criticized? Life of enjoyment, political life, contemplative life. Life of enjoyment. Bestial, vulgar, slavish. 185. What is Aristotle's criticism of those who take being honored as happiness? That it's thought to depend on those who bestow honor rather than on him who receives it 186. Instead of being honored, what seems to be the real goal of those in political life? That they may be assured of their goodness 187. What is Aristotle's criticism of those who equate happiness with being virtuous? He compares them to being asleep 188. The life of money-making seems a fourth type of life, yet Aristotle doesn't take it seriously as a goal. Why? Because it's only useful and not for the sake of something else 189. What are the two types of virtue? How do they come to be in us differently? Intellectual and moral virtue. Intellectual: taught to us. Moral: result of habit. 190. Do moral virtues arise in us by nature, contrary to nature, or in some other way? We're adapted by nature to receive them, and they're made perfect by habit 191. What Aristotle writes: "states of character arise out of like activities," what does he mean? That our activities affect our character because what we do becomes habit 192. When Aristotle distinguishes three objects of choice he is distinguishing three meanings of "good." What are those three meanings? What is good in itself (an end); what is useful or good as a means to an end (advantageous good); the feeling of pleasure or delight or happiness itself. 193. Which of the three can accompany the other two? Pleasure (3) 194. What does Aristotle mean when he writes that we measure our actions by the rule of pleasure and pain? We judge that if they feel good, we want to do them, but if they feel painful, we don't want to do them. 195. If the good and bad appear so to us in accord with our physical constitution and our moral character, in what way are we in control of our actions when we seek what is good for us? 196. What distinctions are being made in order to reason well about the above questions? Good itself and the appearance of good 197. In what way is the good man the norm and measure of the truth about what is truly good? He sees the truth in each class of things 198. What is the usual cause of our mistaking a merely apparent good for what is truly good? Pleasure 199. How do habits make what is objectively good appear either more or less so to us? When we have a habit of doing good it makes it easier to see and do good things. 200. How does the function of man in accord with virtue enable Aristotle to decide that while happiness must belong primarily to those who function in one specific way, yet there is another way to function specifically as a human person that yields a secondary kind of happiness? 201. Why do man and woman naturally come together? So the race can continue, and they can leave behind an image of themselves. 202. What is meant by a slave by nature? Someone with less reasoning/ ability to reason? 203. Is Aristotle saying that women are slaves by nature or is he denying that? He denies that 204. What constitutes a family and how is this determined by a goal we naturally aim at? That they have a sense of good and evil, just and unjust, etc. 205. By what stages do persons become part of a state? Individuals become family, Family becomes village, village becomes state 206. Is the state a natural organization of human beings? Yes 207. What is the purpose of a state? To determine what is just 208. How are the individual and the family related to the state? They are part of the state; they make it up