Intersubjectivity in Philosophy PDF

**Intersubjectivity in General** Philosophy, unlike Theology, does not use primarily biblical texts in its pursuit, though some religious texts are morally worthy to be examples in explaining philosophical ideas like the previous reading we had. The Parable of the Good Samaritan clearly explains th...

**Intersubjectivity in General** Philosophy, unlike Theology, does not use primarily biblical texts in its pursuit, though some religious texts are morally worthy to be examples in explaining philosophical ideas like the previous reading we had. The Parable of the Good Samaritan clearly explains the phenomenon of intersubjectivity in the human world. Though it focuses on the Kingdom of God, it still validates the importance of intersubjective relations of man. Intersubjectivity is a coined word from the prefix "inter" which connotes "among and between" and the philosophical term "subject" that is equivalent to a conscious being. Thus, intersubjectivity would mean in the general sense as "sharing of subjective states by two or more individuals." (Scheff 2006). It is the organic union of the subjective reality and the objective reality of beings. Meaning to say, as a person, we have a personal regard to self but we cannot deny the fact (objective -- fact of reality we all share) that we live with others so we also regard them as part of ourselves. We tend to place ourselves in others' shoes and relate to them in good ways as possible **The Foundation of Human Connection** At its core, intersubjectivity is about shared meaning. When we communicate, we rely on a shared understanding of symbols, language, and cultural references. This shared understanding allows us to convey our thoughts, feelings, and intentions effectively. For instance, a simple gesture, like a smile or a nod, can convey a wealth of meaning, understood by those who share our cultural context. Beyond shared meaning, intersubjectivity is the bedrock of empathy and understanding. By stepping into another person\'s shoes, we can gain insight into their perspective, feelings, and experiences. This empathetic understanding fosters deeper connections and stronger relationships. It\'s the ability to \"feel with\" another person that allows us to respond compassionately and supportively. **Philosophical and Psychological Perspectives** Philosophers and psychologists have long pondered the nature of intersubjectivity. Phenomenologists like Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger emphasized its importance in shaping our sense of self. They argued that our identity is not solely individual but is intertwined with our interactions with others. Social constructionists, on the other hand, highlight the role of intersubjectivity in creating and maintaining shared social realities. Our understanding of the world, they contend, is shaped by our shared experiences and cultural practices. Psychoanalytic theorists, such as Sigmund Freud and Jacques Lacan, delved into the psychological dimensions of intersubjectivity. They explored how our early relationships with caregivers shape our sense of self and our ability to form meaningful connections with others. **Challenges and Opportunities** While intersubjectivity is essential for human flourishing, it\'s not without its challenges. Cultural differences, language barriers, and emotional barriers can hinder our ability to connect with others. Misunderstandings, biases, and prejudices can further complicate intersubjective understanding. However, these challenges also present opportunities for growth and learning. By cultivating empathy, practicing active listening, and engaging in open and honest communication, we can overcome these obstacles and deepen our connections with others. In today\'s increasingly interconnected world, intersubjectivity is more important than ever. By fostering understanding, empathy, and cooperation, we can create a more harmonious and just society. **What Philosophers Say About Intersubjectivity** Intersubjectivity is universal. It exists when and where humans exist. It is an undeniable reality which thinkers could not help but discuss. Here are some philosophers who took philosophical inquiry on intersubjectivity: **1. Confucius (551-479 B.C.E.)** -- one of the main ideas of Confucianism is Ren or "human-heartedness." It is a virtue central to man that can be found in his sociality or intersubjectivity. In his philosophy, Confucius stresses order and harmony in the world. His aims can be achieved through practical, concrete, particular, and perceptual ways. This means Confucian thinking on intersubjectivity is practical humanism. There is an emphasis on human actions in sociality. He calls every man to love the other through actions, not through thoughts. **2. Martin Buber (1878-1965)** -- is a Jewish philosopher who introduced the "I-Thou" and "I-It" relationships to embody his philosophy of intersubjectivity. For Buber, we have to treat another person as a subject (a being different from things or objects). Persons are not inanimate objects to be used. They have their own mind and free will, thus, we have to respect others as we respect ourselves. "I" refers to the self and "Thou" or "You" refers to others. This "I-Thou" relationship is the most meaningful relationship in the realm of humanity. The "I" is the same with the "Thou" and there should be mutual relationship between them. We can only recognize the self in the context of the other. This is a "person-to-person" relationship, "subject-to-subject" relation. We need to accept, respect, be sincere, and have dialogue with the other. **3. Karol Wojtyla (1920-2005)** -- He is also St. John Paul II but as a philosopher, we use his real name. For Wojtyla, human action is the foundation of our being. But human reality is also about being with others, so our actions are also directed towards others. This form of action is now called "Participation." In the theory of participation, man has the capacity to share himself to others. This affirms the reality that man acts and exists with others. He is a member of the community of persons, a community of "I-You" or "We." Since man is a member of this community, his experience with others gives him meaning and allows him to create meaning with others. **Challenges to Intersubjectivity for Persons with Disabilities** - **Communication Barriers:** Physical or cognitive impairments can hinder effective communication, making it difficult to establish shared meaning and understanding. For instance, individuals with speech impairments may struggle to articulate their thoughts and feelings, while those with hearing impairments may miss crucial nonverbal cues. - **Social Stigma and Stereotypes:** Negative attitudes and misconceptions about disability can lead to social isolation and exclusion, limiting opportunities for meaningful social interactions. People with disabilities may be stereotyped as incapable or dependent, which can hinder their ability to form genuine connections with others. - **Environmental Barriers:** Physical barriers in the environment can restrict mobility and access, further isolating individuals with disabilities and hindering their ability to participate fully in society. For example, inaccessible buildings and transportation systems can limit opportunities for social interaction and engagement. **The Role of Intersubjectivity in Supporting Inclusion** Despite these challenges, intersubjectivity can be a powerful tool for promoting inclusion and empowering individuals with disabilities. - **Empathy and Understanding:** By cultivating empathy and understanding, we can bridge the gap between ourselves and others with disabilities. This involves actively listening, asking open-ended questions, and seeking to understand their unique perspectives. For example, by asking a person with a visual impairment how they prefer to receive information, we can show respect for their needs and preferences. - **Inclusive Design:** By designing environments and technologies that are accessible to everyone, we can create spaces where intersubjectivity can flourish. This includes considering the needs of individuals with sensory, cognitive, and physical impairments. For instance, providing captions and transcripts for videos can make information more accessible to individuals with hearing impairments. - **Supportive Relationships:** Strong, supportive relationships can help individuals with disabilities develop a sense of belonging and connection. These relationships can provide emotional support, practical assistance, and opportunities for shared experiences. For example, a mentor or peer support group can provide guidance and encouragement, helping individuals with disabilities to overcome challenges and achieve their goals. Ultimately, intersubjectivity is essential for creating a more inclusive and equitable society. By recognizing the diverse needs and experiences of individuals with disabilities, we can build stronger communities and foster a sense of shared humanity. The Human Person in Society Filling up the social map above must not have been that difficult for you because all of us would certainly have friends, family, and groups to belong to. This comes as no surprise at all because one defining characteristic of human persons is our social nature. This is because we, as human beings (unlike animals who gather simply out of the instinct and need for survival) gather together and form varying degrees of relationship. We gather not just for the sake of survival but also to be able to share our experiences with others, to feel a sense of belonging, and to contribute to other people's growth as well. If you remember your previous lesson on intersubjectivity, then it will make sense for you to conclude that the kind of relationship that human beings' build with one another is deeper and more complex. The process of coming together of human beings is called socialization. This is the process where exchange of tangible goods and personal emotions happens. The setting in which human beings' is what we call society. Society then can be defined as a social system of people that share a common geographical territory, common culture, and way of life. It is considered a social system since it is a set of interrelated and interdependent elements that can be thought of as a whole. It is analogous to a biological system that is composed of several organs that function interdependently with one another in order to make such a etc.). Likewise, society is composed of different parts such as schools, communities, economic institutions, government units, etc. which allow it function. These are called institutions whichare another form of social systems that take care of distributing particular goods, values and services to the society. Below is a table of some examples of institutions that exist in the society and the goods, values, and services that they distribute to. Institution Goods/Services/Values ----------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------- Family (The most basic institution and the building block of society) Food, shelter, clothing, sense of belonging, and security School Knowledge, skills, and empowerment Health center/ Hospital Health Government/State Justice and order Economic Institutions/Market Basic and luxury service, consumer products, income, and employment Arts and Entertainment Leisure We have seen in the table above that the family is considered the building block of a society. This is because it is the social institution that takes care of propagating the human species, educates new members of the society, and trains members of the society in the process of participation and socialization. Participation, like socialization, refers to the process of interaction that human persons undertake with other people. However, the word contains a specific nuance in a way that St. Pope John Paul II, defines it as a process in which people give a share of themselves to others and take an active role in their participation in society. This means that when we participate in society, we do not simply act as onlookers or bystanders in the social stage, but contribute our knowledge and talents. We do this when we practice our professions in the various fields of medicine, education, or politics. We can still do this even while we are the students by contributing to the learning of our classmates or joining youth organizations that have certain advocacies. Social movements also participate in society by advocating for the rights of the underprivileged or the oppressed. In essence, as human persons we not only join the society to be able to benefit from it, but we join the society to be able to contribute to it deliberately and purposely. We can then conclude that the society functions for the survival and development of human beings. The society then exists for the human person. Societies also comprise of smaller social groups which take responsibility for nurturing human beings. These social groups can be called communities which are groups of persons (smaller than a society) who gather to achieve a common end. This gathering is both purposive means that their association with one another is done consciously and for a common end and that this gathering is ruled by common agreements, culture, beliefs, and values. These communities can be based on the geographical location such as a village neighborhood. Others may be based on the identity such as a local ethnic group or may even be based on the interests such as a group of health care workers concerned for a barangay. As we have established earlier, human communities then are unlike a group of animals that simply gather out of the instinct and need for survival. Socialization and relationship are natural to human beings since we are social by nature. Proofs of this include the universal observation that we all have a deep desire to relate with others (this is called intersubjectivity). There is also the fact that our physiological make-up cannot account for our own survival (i.e., babies, propagation of our species). Lastly, we also observe that we have to naturally work together in order to achieve our goals and actualize ourselves. This goal that everyone in the community shares is what we call the common good. This term refers to the sum total of human conditions and circumstances that allow people to pursue their end as persons. **Development of Tribal, Industrial, and Post-Industrial Societies** The evolution of human societies can be categorized into three major stages: tribal, industrial, and post-industrial. Each stage is defined by distinct characteristics, priorities, norms, and transformative factors that have shaped the course of human history. **Tribal Society:** Tribal societies are small, kin-based groups that rely on hunting, gathering, and subsistence agriculture. They are characterized by egalitarian social structures and a dependence on local resources **Priorities:** The primary focus of tribal societies is survival, maintaining communal harmony, and utilizing resources sustainably. These societies prioritize the well-being of the group over individual interests **Norms:** Tribal societies emphasize kinship, collective decision-making, and living in harmony with nature. These norms foster a strong sense of community and shared responsibility **Transformation:** The transition from tribal to agricultural and pastoral societies was driven by changes in resource availability and technological advancements, which allowed for more stable food production and larger communities **Industrial Society:** Industrial societies are marked by urbanization, manufacturing-based economies, technological advancement, and social stratification. These societies emerged with the industrial revolution, which transformed economic and social structures **Priorities:** The focus of industrial societies is on economic growth, technological innovation, and urban development. The drive for efficiency and productivity becomes central to societal progress **Norms:** Industrial societies emphasize individualism, labor specialization, and capitalist economic systems. These norms reflect a shift from communal to individual priorities, with a focus on personal achievement and economic success **Transformation:** The emergence of industrialization was fueled by technological inventions and a shift from agrarian economies to manufacturing. This transformation was driven by the need for increased production and the exploitation of new energy sources **Post-Industrial Society:** Post-industrial societies are characterized by information-based economies, digital technology, knowledge production, and service-oriented employment. The focus shifts from manufacturing to the production of services and information **Priorities:** The priorities of post-industrial societies include knowledge creation, information dissemination, and technological advancement. These societies value innovation and the management of scientific and technological resources **Norms:** Emphasis is placed on digital literacy, access to education, and service-oriented professions. The norms reflect a society that values expertise and the ability to adapt to rapid technological changes **Transformation:** The shift from industrial to post-industrial societies is driven by the increasing importance of scientific knowledge and services over traditional manufacturing and agriculture. This transformation is marked by the rise of knowledge-based industries and the empowerment of a technical-professional elite Nothing lasts forever (walang forever). The cycle of being born, growing up and growing old and dying is a reality. We have limited time here on earth and whether we like it or not, we are bound to die. Death is real. It is a part of our being. Death is commonly understood as the end of bodily functions. It also refers to the separation of body and spirit. Everything that exists in this universe comes to an end and we humans are not exempted. The acceptance of being a temporary individual in this world gives us a clearer vision on how to live life to the fullest and understand the meaning of our existence. We have the freedom to choose a well-lived life; doing good and doing what is right. What makes us happy? Happiness is a state of being (over all physical condition of a person), not just only an emotion or a decision. We do not choose happiness because we feel it, we do not choose happiness because we need it but happiness is the totality of who we are as human beings. **Kinds of Good** 1. **Noble good** is one which is pursued for its own sake, example is love and friendship. The concept of the \"noble\" often refers to actions or qualities that exhibit high moral standards, selflessness, and a commitment to doing good for others, even at a personal cost. This aligns closely with virtue ethics, especially in Aristotle's philosophy, where \"nobility\" is often associated with a virtuous character that seeks the good of others and the common good, rather than mere personal gain. In a philosophical sense, a noble action is one that: - Is morally admirable or praiseworthy. - Involves selflessness, courage, or integrity. - Often requires sacrifice or prioritizing others\' well-being over one\'s own. Noble deeds are seen as morally exemplary and as expressions of a person\'s virtuous character. These actions stem not from seeking praise or reward but from a genuine commitment to the good. Example: - A classic example of a noble act is the self-sacrifice of a soldier who risks or gives up their life to protect others. Philosophers see this as noble because it involves courage, selflessness, and a commitment to a higher moral purpose (such as the safety of others or loyalty to one\'s country). - In a non-military context, imagine a doctor who, during a dangerous epidemic, puts their own life at risk to treat patients. The doctor's actions reflect nobility because they are motivated by a deep sense of duty and compassion, prioritizing others' health and safety over personal security. In both examples, the individuals act out of a sense of moral duty and dedication to the well-being of others, embodying the essence of the noble good in philosophy. 2. **Useful good** is found only from what it can provide, example, money is good as it can buy you something. In philosophy, \"useful good\" refers to actions or things valued primarily for their practical benefits or utility, rather than for moral or aesthetic reasons. This concept aligns with utilitarianism and other pragmatic approaches that emphasize outcomes, where the value of an action or object is determined by the practical advantages or benefits it brings. A \"useful good\" is: - Valued for its effectiveness in achieving a particular end. - Beneficial because it serves a specific purpose or function. - Judged by its utility in producing desirable outcomes. The focus here is not on intrinsic moral worth but rather on the usefulness of something in helping achieve a positive or advantageous result. Example: - Consider a tool like a hammer. In philosophy, the hammer is a \"useful good\" because its value lies in its utility for driving nails or constructing things. It is valued not for its own sake, but because it helps accomplish a task effectively. - In human actions, an example could be organizing a community clean-up event to improve public health and safety. The action is a \"useful good\" because it provides practical benefits---cleaner streets, reduced pollution, and a healthier environment. Although this action might also be seen as noble, it is particularly useful because of the tangible, practical improvements it brings to the community. In both examples, the \"good\" is derived from the immediate, beneficial impact rather than from any inherent moral or aesthetic quality. **3. Pleasurable good** is good so long as it provides some form of pleasure, though it does not have to be physical. \"Pleasurable good\" refers to actions, experiences, or things that are valued for the immediate pleasure or enjoyment they provide. This concept aligns with hedonism and other philosophies that recognize pleasure as an important, though not necessarily the highest, aspect of a good life. A \"pleasurable good\" is: - Valued for the pleasure or enjoyment it brings. - Pursued for its own sake, as it provides direct satisfaction or happiness. - Often seen as an intrinsic good, meaning it is good in and of itself because it brings joy or reduces discomfort. The pleasurable good is considered worthwhile because it directly enhances a person\'s experience of happiness or reduces their suffering. Example: - An example of a pleasurable good could be enjoying a delicious meal. The pleasure derived from the flavors, textures, and satisfaction of eating is valued for its own sake, not because it accomplishes a higher purpose beyond enjoyment. - In a different context, consider listening to your favorite music. This activity is a pleasurable good because it provides immediate enjoyment and emotional satisfaction. People engage in it not to achieve a practical end or a moral outcome, but simply because it brings joy or comfort. In both cases, the actions are considered \"good\" because they contribute to personal happiness, satisfying the desire for pleasure in a direct and fulfilling way. **The Human Person and the Reality of Death** **What does death make us realize?** We have learned that the human person is a composite of two principles: body and spirit. Thus, being corporeal beings, we are finite, our bodies eventually decay, and our spirit lives on. Thus, our life on earth would, sooner or later, come to an end. The reality of death made the German philosopher, Martin Heidegger, claims that a human person is a temporal being, meaning that it is a reality that no one can live on forever and that the things and beings eventually pass on. The ultimate reality that makes human beings realize the temporariness of their life is the fact that everyone will have to face death sooner or later. Heidegger then coined a sort of nickname for all of us, human beings. He thought that people are also beings-toward-death. This sounds quite a somber description of the human person where he makes us focus or even be fixated on death. However, the message he wants to bring across with this compound word is that we should not forget that our life has to come to an end eventually, and this will motivate us to live our life with meaning and purpose. Moreover, Heidegger describes us as dasein which means "to be there." This quality of "being there" means that we are always confined to a place and to a specific time and we realize this because of our consciousness (remember, our intellect). One of the very first things then that the human being realizes through his/her consciousness is his/her temporality, that our existence is related to time. There is something else too that Heidegger says about our temporality. He claims that since our life here on earth does not last forever, people must strive to live an authentic existence. An authentic existence means knowing what it means to be alive in this world and knowing one's purpose in this life. Yet how do we do this? He suggests the following: - to be aware of and learn from our past; - to seize and make the most out of our present experiences; - to be prepared to open oneself to the many opportunities in the future; and - to be aware of one's own temporality by savoring each moment of our life and make sense of them. **What else should we know about death?** Death is also an experience that is unique to each person and can only happen once in a person's life. In fact, it is the termination of a person's life. We say that it is unique to each person because no one can take death in our stead -- our own death is our very own experience. After having made all these reflections about death, you might start to feel uncomfortable and fearful of death. This is simply a normal reaction to something as mysterious as the reality of death. However, the act of confronting death as a reality will make you more prepared for it by being convinced that you should live a full and meaningful life. By doing so, you will be able to live a truly authentic life. **Death and Finitude** It is natural for us, human beings, to desire to continue living here on Earth, but the reality is that all of us will face death. Yet, this should not be a reason for despair. The realization of our finitude, as we had discussed earlier, can move us to live our lives to the fullest, maximize our talents, and take care of our relationships. According to a German philosopher, Karl Jaspers, finitude is a defining characteristic of our existence as human beings and we ought to confront it. For most people, reflecting about death can be a cause for anxiety but for Jaspers (and we can take note of his advice), death can elevate the spirit to a higher level. This is because the reality of death emphasizes the urgency of living authentically without today, right now, without leaving for tomorrow the things that we can do meaningfully today. **Types of Death** Death can be categorized in various ways, primarily based on the cause and manner of death. Here are the main types: **1. Natural Death -** This type of death occurs due to natural causes, such as diseases or age-related factors. Common examples include: Heart disease, Stroke, and Infections. Natural deaths are often the result of complications from existing health conditions. **2. Accidental Death -** Accidental deaths result from unforeseen events or mishaps. This category includes: Traffic accidents, fall, and Drowning. These deaths are typically not intended and occur due to a lack of control over circumstances. **3. Suicide -** Suicide is the intentional act of ending one\'s own life. It often stems from mental health issues, emotional distress, or overwhelming life circumstances. **4. Homicide -** Homicide refers to the intentional killing of one person by another. This can occur in various contexts, including violent crimes or domestic disputes. **5. Undetermined -** In some cases, the manner of death cannot be clearly classified. This may occur when the circumstances surrounding the death are unclear or when further investigation is needed. **6. Pending -** This classification is used when the cause of death is still under investigation, and no definitive conclusion has been reached. **7. Judicial Execution -** This type of death occurs as a result of a death penalty sentence, where the state carries out the execution of a convicted individual. **8. Genocide -** involves the systematic extermination of a particular group of people based on their race, ethnicity, or religion.