Philosophy - Main Reviewer PDF

Pointers to Review The Human Person as an Embodied Spirit True or False 15 The Human Person in their Environment Identification with choices 10 Intersubjectivity Matching Type 10 Fre...

Pointers to Review The Human Person as an Embodied Spirit True or False 15 The Human Person in their Environment Identification with choices 10 Intersubjectivity Matching Type 10 Freedom of the Human Person Enumeration The Human Person in Society The Human Person as Oriented Towards their Impending Death The Human Person in Their Environment Defining the Environment - The environment refers to the surroundings or conditions in which a person, animal, or plant lives - It includes both the natural and built environments - The environment plays a significant role in shaping or experiences, behaviors, and overall well-being Human Being’s Perspective on Environment - The kind of relationship that human being establishes with the environment depends on how he/she perceives it. Human being sees and considers the environment as an erratic and disorderly thing that needs to be analyzed, reformed and reshaped through the cultural tools of science and technology in the service of the human self. Furthermore, the environment is considered as a commodity or property to be used and disposed of for one's own individual welfare. - In such cases, the human self fails to relate to the environment as another subject, as bio-community. It sees the environment as something to be exploited. This is the cause of ongoing environmental crisis. Natural entities and resources such as individuals, species, and ecosystem are destroyed. 1 Approximately 50,000 species go extinct each year. Three- fourths of the world's birds and a quarter of the world's mammalian species face extinction. Human Being’s Approaches to Environment - This kind of relationship between the human self and the environment has led to the emergence and development of the various approaches to Nature such as instrumental approach, axiological approach, anthropological approach, utilitarianism, natural law ethics, virtue ethics, and Buberian approaches. a. Instrumental Approach - In this approach to environment, human being affirms the protection of the environment as long as it possesses value or importance for human being. - The problem with this approach is that when a human being can no longer recognize the value of environment, it ceases to be of value - Consequently, he/ she ends to manipulate and utilize it as a mere thing. In such situation, environment loses its being and significance. - Use until may value pa - Aalagaan mo kasi kailangan mo - Commodity o Salinas salt spring b. Axiological Approach - In this approach to environment, human being recognizes the intrinsic value of the environment. This demands him/her to protect and take care of it. Beauty can be seen as the external expression of such intrinsic value. - Axiological approach needs a greater use of imagination and reflection on the part of human being for him/her to see and experience the intrinsic value of the environment. - Natural to care for the environment - Maganda siya, kaya valuable - Considered important and valuable kasi you need it to live 2  c. Anthropological Approach - In this approach, the value of the environment comes from the external authority; from human being. Human being does not recognize that the environment has its own consciousness and inherent system. - Such approach considers environment as an object without any consciousness of its own. It can be manipulated and controlled for human being's disposal. Consequently, he/she sees the importance of protection, care, and respect for the environment. - You care kasi you will need it as a person - Di mo iddispose kasi need mo - Human superiority - Authority - Human intervention d. Utilitarianism - This approach focuses on the consequence of human action, whether it is wrong or right - Our action is ethically right when it produces the greatest happiness for the greater number of people, otherwise, the action is ethically wrong - Human being uses such view to utilize and manipulate natural environment for development e. Natural Law Ethics - This approach believes that The human being as the summit expression of God's goodness, and who possesses intellect and reason, has a great responsibility to care for the environment and not to destroy it. - We respect nature because God created it for a divine purpose. The environment is created and continuously being recreated for human being's well-being, but such process must not jeopardize the divine plan to make the environment sustainable for the continuous existence of the human race. 3  f. Virtue Ethics Perspective - The development of our virtue of respect for the environment is a habitual performance of caring for and respecting non-human beings - The act of caring and respecting becomes our second nature - This extends to non-humans, especially in the environment where he/she lives and realizes his/her being Environmental Aesthetics - Philosophical view that believes maintaining order in the environment will bring out the natural beauty of the surroundings and contribute to the well-being of the people and other organisms living in it - The appreciation of the environment and helps people relate more effectively with nature Environmentalism - This perspective advocates to address the growing environmental problems - It has become an important issue in international politics as governments and international politics as governments and international organizations have devoted efforts to discuss environmental issues and formulate plans to address them - (Kyoto Protocol in 1997, where various nations committed to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions in order to curb global warming; and the celebration of Earth Day, first institutes in 1970, a global effort to raise awareness of issues and inspire action among communities.) Environmental Ethics - This is a moral approach that analyzes the relationship between humans and the environment - It also discusses environmental problems caused by human activities and social issues that impact the environment - It serves as a basis for reflecting on how our actions show our regard for nature 4  - It also guides us in upholding the welfare of the environment and everything in it - As people, it is our responsibility to start with ou own actions and how they affect our immediate surroundings Environmental Philosophy - This means that as human person, we interact not only with our fellow human beings, but also with other living and non-living elements in our environment - Humankind is a part of the world, and we significantly affect our environment in the same way that changes in our environment affect us - Environmental philosophy - The discipline that studies the moral relationship of human beings with the environment and its non-human contents - Philosophers believe that the human person has the ability to change the environment to suit his purposes View in Environmental Philosophy 1. Anthropocentrism - Focuses on the significant role of humankind in the world and considers nature as the means by which humans are able to meet their needs and survive - This view believes that humans are the most important species on the planet and they are free to transform nature and use its resources 2. Biocentrism - Believes that humans are not the only significant species on the planet, and that all other organisms have inherent value and should be protected - This view advocates ethical treatment of animals The Importance of Organizing the Environment - As a rational being, the person is not only capable of transforming the world, but also of understanding the laws which govern nature - It can be said that the world is a text which the person can read and understand in order to live a better life 5  - He may treat it as: a. A source of raw materials to be used in any way he pleases b. As something that envelopes and surround him, and thus have a unique relationship with it - This means that people can help environment become greater than what it originally is Understanding Disorder in the Environment - Disorder in the environment refers to a lack of organization or harmony - It can lead to feelings of stress, confusion, and discomfort - Disorder in the environment can also have a negative impact on our physical and mental well-being The Importance of Organizing the Environment - Organizing the environment promotes a sense of order, clarity, and efficiency - It enhances our ability to focus, make decisions, and accomplish tasks - An organized environment also contributes to a positive and aesthetically pleasing atmosphere Connection Between Care for the Environment and Personal Health - Spending time in nature has been shown to lower stress levels and improve mental health - Engaging with the environment through activities like gardening or hiking can promote physical well-being - Caring for the environment contributes to a healthier planet, which in turn benefits the overall health of human beings Linking Care for the Environment to Sustainable Development - Caring for the environment is essential for achieving sustainable development goals - By conserving resources, reducing waste, and adopting eco-friendly practices, we can ensure a sustainable future for all 6  - Sustainable development refers to meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs Virtues of Prudence and Frugality Towards Environments - Prudence is defined as the ability to have good judgement that allows avoidance of dangers and risks. Meanwhile, frugality is the act of using money or other resources wisely and practically Understanding the Interplay Between Humans and Their Environments - Humans and their environments have a reciprocal relationship - We shape and are shaped by surroundings, which include natural, social, and cultural elements Examining the Impact of Human Actions on the Environment - Human actions can have negative impacts on the environment - Examples of negative impacts include deforestation, pollution, and overconsumption of resources - Conversely, actions like recycling, conservation, and sustainable practices can help mitigates these negative impacts Summary: Importance of Caring for the Environment - Caring for the environment is crucial for our well-being and that of future generations - Individual actions, no matter how small can make a significant difference in protecting the environment - By fostering a sense of responsibility and taking steps to conserve resources, we contribute to a sustainable and harmonious world - Doing good does you good The Human Person as an Embodied Spirit - The philosophy of the human person explores the nature, essence, and limitations of human beings 7  - It delves into the fundamental questions about what it means to be human, the relationship between the body and the spirit, and humans’ limitations The Human Person - In philosophy, the use of the "human person" highlights the complex and multi- dimensional nature of human beings, including their rationality, self-awareness, moral agency, and unique individuality - It is a term that invites deeper philosophical and ethical inquiries into what it means to be human and how humans should relate to one another and the world around them The Human Person as an Embodied Spirit - The concept of the human person as an embodied spirit recognizes that humans are not just physical beings but also possess a spiritual dimension - This perspective acknowledges that humans have a material body and an immaterial soul or spirit - The body serves as the vessel through which the spirit interacts with the physical world - This understanding is prevalent in various philosophical and religious traditions - Examples: 1. In Hinduism, the concept of Atman refers to the individual soul or self that is eternal and transcends the physical body 2. According to Christian theology, humans are believed to be created in the image of God, with a physical body and an immortal soul Limitations of the Human Person - Despite the unique combination of body and spirit, humans also face certain limitations that shape their existence - These limitations can be physical, intellectual, emotional, or moral in nature 8  A. Physical Limitations - Refer to the constraints imposed on humans by their bodily nature  Mortality - Humans have a finite lifespan and are subject to aging, illness, and death  Sensory Limitations - Humans have a limited range of sensory perception compared to other animals - Human persons cannot breathe underwater for prolonged periods of time - Human person cannot fly - An elderly person wants to participate in a community dance event but is limited by arthritis, which restricts their mobility and causes pain - A soldier who lost a limb in combat is unable to perform certain physical tasks, such as heavy lifting or running, limiting their career options in physically demanding roles. - A young child with a chronic illness that requires constant medical attention is limited in their ability to attend school or participate in typical childhood activities like sports. B. Intellectual Limitations - Pertain to the cognitive capacities of humans  Finite Knowledge - Humans have limited cognitive abilities and cannot possess all knowledge  Fallibility - Humans are prone to making errors in judgement and reasoning C. Emotional Limitations - Refer to the constraints humans experience in their emotional and psychological well-being  Vulnerability to suffering - Humans are susceptible to experiencing pain, sorrow, and emotional distress  Emotional Biases 9  - Humans may be influenced by biases and prejudices that affect their emotional responses and decision-making D. Moral Limitations - Relate to the ethical and moral dimensions of human behavior  Moral Imperfections - Humans are capable of making moral mistakes and acting in morally wrong ways  Moral Growth - Humans have the potential for moral development and improvement The Human Person as an Embodied Spirit - Despite these natural limitations, we have used our intellect to devise means to achieve several feats - We now use airplanes to fly, employ scuba gear to swim underwater for extended periods, and invented tools and machines to lift gear weights and perform other feats well beyond our physical capabilities Transcendence - Ability to surpass limits - Our mind is an important tool that allows us to go beyond many of our physical limits - As persons, we are able to exercise our imagination and reflection to go beyond our own thoughts and experiences - Although we have physical limitations, we can transcend them because of our spiritual dimensions. Being physically limited in our abilities does not prevent us from hoping for or aspiring for greater things. - Transcendence also means overcoming oneself or being in control even if the body reminds us of certain tendencies - Although these tendencies are felt, the person can govern them and ensure that they are exercised within the bounds of reason 10  - A person who has no control over his or her eating habit eventually becomes unhealthy and develops an eating disorder - A person who allows the pleasures of dangerous drugs to rule over him becomes a drug addict - In summary, the essence of transcendence is to acknowledge our limitations, identify possibilities for development, and change ourselves for the better - It maybe physical or behavioral change such as trying a new sport or hobby or adopting a healthier life style - You can also take on a mental state challenge such as learning a new skill or doing better in your studies - Our possibilities for transcendence give us the opportunity to work toward becoming better versions of ourselves Intersubjectivity - Term used in philosophy, psychology, sociology, and anthropology to represent the psychological relation between people Think about it… “Consider a conversation where no words are spoken. Can true understanding be achieved through non-verbal communication alone, or do we always rely on language to bridge the gap between our subjective worlds?” 11  - A term originally coined by the philosopher Edmund Husserl (1859–1938), is most simply stated as the interchange of thoughts and feelings, both conscious and unconscious, between two persons or “subjects,” as facilitated by empathy - Intersubjectivity is the understanding and recognition of the subjective experiences and perspectives of others - It requires acceptance of each other’s differences without imposing on them - Through we are part of our society, we are still different individuals living in this society - Each of us will have different appearances or points of view - Labels could be negative or limiting, you may be called “impatient,” “whiny” (to complain in an annoying way) or “stubborn.” - Nevertheless, we could go beyond the labels - As humans, we are holistic. As humans, we are to be regarded in our totality. Thus, we can redesign the labels to something new and exciting Society Red Flags - Discrimination - Profiling based on mental health - Harassment - Authoritarian rule - Cultural suppression - Forced religious conversion Intersubjectivity - Accepting differences is crucial for building inclusive and empathetic communities - It allows us to learn from one another and gain new perspectives - By accepting differences, we promote equality and understanding Intersubjectivity as Ontology: The Social Dimensions of the Self 12 Ontology - Branch of metaphysics concerned with the nature and relations of being - For this section, Martin Buber’s and Karol Wojtyla’s views will be used as the main framework in understanding intersubjectivity - Both philosophers were influenced by their religious background - They believed in the notion of concrete experience/existence of the human person - They also think that one must not lose sight of one’s self in concrete experience - For both views, the human person is total, not dual - For Wojtyla, the social dimension is represented by “we relation” and for for Buber the interpersonal by the “I-you relation” Martin Buber - Jewish existentialist philosopher - He was born in Vienna and was brought up in a Jewish tradition - In his work I and thou (ich and Du), he conceives the human person in his/her wholeness, totality, concrete existence and relatedness to the world Saint Pope John Paul II or Karol Wojtyla - Born in Wadowice Poland - Elected to the papacy on October 16, 1978 (264th pope) and was considered a great pope (88%) - He was also an architect of Communism’s demise in Poland - In his encyclical letter, Fides set ratio, he criticized the traditional definition of human as “rational animal” - He maintains that the human person is the one who exists and acts - For Wojtyla, action reveals the nature of the human agent - Participation explains the essence of the human person - Through participation, the person is able to fulfill one’s self 13  - The human person is oriented toward relation and sharing in the communal life for the common good - As St. Agustine of Hippo said, “No human being should become an end to him/herself. We are responsible to our neighbors as we are to our own actions” We participate in the communal life (we). Our notion of the neighbor and fellow member is by participating in the humanness of the other person (i-you) Bubbers i-thou philosophy is about the human person as a subject, who is a being different from things or from objects The human person experiences his wholeness not in virtue of his relation to one’s self, but in virtue of his relation to another self. The human person establishes the world of mutual relations, of experience The human person is not just being-in-the-world but being-with-others, or being-in- relation Appreciate the talents of persons with disabilities (PWD) and those from the underprivileged sectors of society and their contributions Stephen Hawking - A theoretical physicist, astrophysicist, cosmologist, and eminent scientist - Diagnosed with ALS (Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis) at age 21: he was given 2 more years to live - He lived until he was 76-years-old - He had been paralyzed from head to toe for over thirty years and used a voice synthesizer to be able to communicate, and a wheelchair that he operated through slight movements of the head and eyes - None of this prevented him from developing his activity as an exemplary researcher and professor, and his intense personal life that allowed him to make his illness known to the world Nick Vujicic 14  - Another world famous celebrity with a disability, and founder of Life Without Limbs – an organization for people with physical disabilities - Born in 1982 with no limbs - He claims that as a child he suffered ridicule and discrimination, and tried to commit suicide but, with time, he learned to see his own potential Persons with disabilities and individuals from underprivileged sectors have valuable contributions to make to society. They excel in art, music, sports, and problem-solving. Their unique perspectives and experiences allow them to approach tasks creatively and innovatively. Intersubjectivity – Authentic Dialogue - Authentic dialogue involves actively listening to others without judgment or prejudice. - It requires open-mindedness and a willingness to consider different perspectives. - Accepting others means embracing diversity and respecting each individual's unique experiences and beliefs. Intersubjectivity – Promoting Equality - Promoting equality involves advocating for the rights and well- being of all individuals, regardless of their differences. - Understanding others fosters compassion and empathy, leading to a more harmonious and inclusive society. - By actively promoting equality and understanding, we contribute to a world that celebrates diversity and values the perspectives of all. Human Person in Society 15 Society - An organized group of people whose members interact frequently and have a common territory and culture - A companionship or friendly association with others, and alliance, a community, or union How Individuals Form Societies - Individuals form societies through cooperation and theestablishment of social norms and institutions - Shared language, culture, and values also contribute to the formation of societies - Economic interdependence and the need for collective security are additional factors that contribute to the formation of societies Homo Socius - Humans are social beings - As social beings, humans are necessarily political - They do not only relate with one another but they need to enter into a political association for their own preservation, common protection, and good life Humans as Political Beings - Humans are political by nature - They have the natural desire to live in communities for the sake of self-preservation, common protection, and good life. - Aristotle gives three reasons why humans are political beings - These are Aristotle’s arguments as to why humans are political beings 1. Political Society is the completion of the natural development of human communities 2. Only humans have the capacity for speech 3. The political society comes before individuals 16  - Plato’s concept of a just society is based on his concept of human nature. For Plato, a human person has a soul which is composed of three parts: 1. Appetitive - Responsible for the person’s need for nourishment and reproduction 2. Spirited - Responsible for the person’s emotions, passion, and willpower 3. Rational - Responsible for the person’s thinking - Plato’s ideal society is a society wherein different kinds of people are positioned differently depending on their abilities, doing their own job. Social Contract Theories - The social contract theorists- Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau view humans as naturally free - According to them, no political society can be established without human consent. 1. Thomas Hobbes - Social contract - An agreement where individuals sacrifice an amount of their freedom and submit to a higher authority 2. John Locke 17  - John Locke’s social contract theory is rooted in the idea of a state of nature where individuals have natural rights - The purpose of government is to protect these rights, and political authority is derived from the consent of the governed 3. Jean Jacques Rousseau - General will - Even if the people are the ones who organized the society, in extreme cases, the government is able to impose its will on the people Common Good - When more than one person desires and works to achieve the same good then it can be said that the common good exists among them - Refers to social conditions which enable persons and groups to fulfill their goals and achieve well-being The Evolution of Societies Hunting and Gathering Society - Early and simplest form of society - Small sized and composed mainly of families - Are nomadic - Members are treated equally and decisions are usually arrived through consensus, because of this, roles of its members and division of labor is not very clearly defined 18 Pastoral Society - Domestication of animals for a more stable food supply - Have larger populations than hunting and gathering societies and remain longer in one place - Often produce surplus food and resources, which they trade with other societies Horticultural Society - Primarily engages in the small scale cultivation of plants, fruits, and vegetables and the domestication of animals - Semi nomadic - Roles and responsibilities are more clearly defined with many tasks assigned according to gender Agrarian / Agricultural Society - A further evolution of the pastoral and horticultural societies - Involves large scale and long term cultivation of crops and domestication of animals - Improved technology and the use of tools to aid in farming - Giving rise to a growing population in agricultural societies Feudal Society - Based on the ownership of land - Rulers grant their followers or vassals the right to manage parcels of land - Members of society are organized based on status 19 Industrial Society - Use of specialized machinery in the production of goods and services - Resulted in the Industrial revolution, which in turn gave in rise to new production and industrial methods, as well as innovations in transportation and communication Post-Industrial Society - Marked by the establishment of societies based on knowledge, information, and the sale of services - Members have higher education, better training and specialized roles - Virtual Society, where people organized themselves through communication technology and the Internet, is a product of a post-industrial society 20 Virtual Society - The concepts of a virtual society refer to online communities and networks - Virtual societies are characterized by digital interactions and the formation of relationships in cyberspace - They have transformed the way individuals communicate, collaborate, and share information How Does Society Influence our Development as Human Persons? 1. Norms - These are societal expectations or rules of behavior that guide individuals' actions within a particular group or culture. - They are informal guidelines that help shape social interactions and define what is considered acceptable or unacceptable behavior. a. Social norms - Waiting in line, saying "please" and "thank you," not talking loudly in a library b. Cultural norms - Bowing is a form of greeting in some Asian cultures, the expectation of punctuality in some Western cultures. 21  2. Laws - Laws are formal rules established by a governing authority to regulate behavior within a society. - They are usually codified and enforceable, with prescribed penalties for violations. a. Criminal laws - Prohibiting theft, murder, assault b. Traffic laws - Speed limits, traffic signal regulations c. Contract laws - Rules governing agreements and contracts between parties 3. Folkways - Folkways are informal, traditional behaviors or customs that are considered normal or polite within a particular culture but are not necessarily morally significant. - Violating folkways may lead to social disapproval but typically does not result in severe consequences. a. Eating Etiquette - Using utensils in certain ways, saying "excuse me" after a burp b. Greeting Customs - Handshakes, cheek kisses, or other forms of greeting specific to a culture c. Dress Code - Wearing appropriate attire for specific occasions 4. Social Values - These are actions or ideals that are considered important by society. - Cooperation, obedience tot eh law, concern, and respect for others are considered vital for maintaining an orderly society. 22  - Norms, laws, and other rules that regulate human interactions give rise to a social system, which is an organized or patterned set of relationships among individuals and groups that compose a society 5. Social System a. Social role - Actions and behaviors expected of certain individual b. Social groups / Social classes - Individuals who perform similar roles are grouped together c. Social institutions - Certain groups that perform vital functions in society Human Persons as Oriented Toward their Impending Death Bucket List - It refers to a list of things that one has not done before but wants to do before dying - Spending time with loved ones - Traveling - Eating exotic foods - Adventures - Saying “sorry,” “thank you,” “I love you” Traditional Definition - Death – was simply equated to the stopping of heartbeat and breathing Legal Definition - Section 2, paragraph (j) of the Organ Donation Act of 1991 (Republic Act 7170): 23  (j) “Death” – the irreversible cessation of circulatory and respiratory functions or the irreversible cessation of all functions of the entire brain, including the brain stem. A person shall be medically and legally dead if either: (1) In the opinion of the attending physician, based on the acceptable standards of medical practice, there is an absence of natural respiratory and cardiac functions and, attempts at resuscitation would not be successful in restoring those functions. In this case, death shall be deemed to have occurred at the time these functions ceased; or (2) In the opinion of the consulting physician, concurred in by the attending physician, that on the basis of acceptable standards of medical practice, there is an irreversible cessation of all brain functions; and considering the absence of such functions, further attempts at resuscitation or continued supportive maintenance would not be successful in restoring such natural functions. In this case, death shall be deemed to have occurred at the time when these conditions first appeared. What Happens to the Human Person After Death? Reincarnation - The philosophical or religious concept that an aspect of a living being starts a new life in a different physical body or form after each biological death Can we know this for certain? “No man knows whether death may not even turn out to be the greatest blessing for a human being; and yet people fear it as if they knew for certain that it is the greatest of evil.” – Socrates Socrates on Death Death is either: 1. Dreamless sleep 2. Passage to another life Therefore, either way, death is nothing to fear 24 How Does Death Feel? Epicurus on Death - All sensation and consciousness ends with death - When a man dies, he does not feel the pain of death because he no longer is and therefore feels nothing - Fearing nonexistence gets in the way of enjoying life “Non fui, fui, non sum, non curo.” – Epicuruean Epitaph “I was not; I was; I am not; I do not care” “Death is nothing to us.” – Epicurus - To fully grasp Epicurus’ point, consider what happens when we’re not unconscious. - We do not experience unconsciousness – in dreamless sleep, for instance, we wake in the morning, and our most recent memory is the last thing we did at night - Though hours may have passed, we did not experience their passing: we just jumped to the next conscious episode - So, though on the naturalistic view, death is often characterized as an eternal abyss, a black silence, a terrifying nothingness, this characterization is misleading, for it suggests we’ll experience this eternal blackness - But death means the experiencing subject no longer exists. There will be no consciousness there to experience silence, darkness, or the passing of time. - The reason we struggle to imagine what this state is like is because there is nothing it is like to be in it. Consciousness is all we’ve ever known, and all we ever can know - Or maybe what we actually fear is being deprived of possibilities “If death is an evil at all, it cannot be because of its positive features, but only because of what it deprives us of” – Thomas Nagel 25  “…none of us existed before we were born (or conceived), but few regard that as a misfortune.” – Thomas Nagel Nagel on Death - #fomo: fear of missing out - In conclusion, Nagel thinks that the only real evil of death is dying prematurely - Would we feel regret if there is no death? - It can be argued that it is death that gives meaning to life 26